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Besides its religious importance, the Bible, because of its ancient origin represents a relevant witness of the way of life of the people mentioned in it. The Holy Scripture is also the first text revealing the utility of plants for man, as natural sources of food, wood, fibers, oils and medicinal herbs. In the last 60 years, several distinguished botanists have attempted to identify the scientific names of the plants cited in the Bible. Nonetheless, these scholars have provided different lists of plants appearing in the Bible, none of which could be accepted as indisputable. The authors have combined their expertise to focus on the identification of the diuretic plants, through an historical analysis of the literature on this issue.

Aim: The study was devised to understand the contribution to nephrology ofDe Medicina Methodicaof Prospero Alpini published in 1511, at a time when the fame of the professor reached the azimuth., Method: We have analyzed the contents of chapters devoted to nephrology in that book of Prospero Alpini and the novelties of his message., Results: Prospero Alpini (1563-1616) taught at the University of Padua (1594-1616), at the same time of Galileo Galilei, Santorio Santorio, and Girolamo Fabrizi dAcquapendente, when measurements (pulse, temperature, perspiration) were introduced into medicine. He was a travelling physician to whom we owe fundamental contributions to the use of urine to prognosticate life and death (De Praesagienda vita et morte aegrotantium libri septem, Venetiis, apud Haeredes Melchioris Sessae,1601). As prefect of the Botanical Garden - the first ever and a model in the world - he could turn the study of simples into cures(De Medicina Methodica Libri Tredecim. Patavi, apud Franciscum Bolzettam, 1611. Ex typographia Laurentij Pasquali, is anin foliovolume of XLVII + 424 pages, 54 lines per page), wherein Alpini aimed to rejuvenate antique medical Methodism. It is a testimony of the interest of medicine philosophers of the modern era for the corpuscular and atomic ideas (Nancy Siraisi). Methodists (2ndCentury BC) refused anatomy and physiology as unique guidelines to the interpretations of diseases and gave importance to the development of a pharmacological science and alternative medicine. The book begins with a 3 page letter to Francis Maria della Rovere Duke of Montefeltro, and a 2 page letter to the readers. We discuss the novelties of the chapters on renal colic (de dolorerenum), hematuria (de sanguinis profluvium), pyuria, anuria (de urina suppressa) and its cure, polyuria (de urina profluvio), renal abscesses, hydrops and its treatment by skin incisions. We also analyze the chapter on kidney and bladder stones (Book X, Chapter XVIII, pp. 354-356) - a masterpiece of scholarly teaching - encompassing localization of stones, their formation and shape, renal colic and its irradiation according to the site and gender, the best antalgic position to pass stones, the use of laxatives, cathartics, warm baths, the plants to be used, their preparation and quality, the waters to be drank and their quantity (up to 15 pounds a day), the removal of bladder stones without surgery (methods learned in Cairo and described in Aegyptyan Medicine), and lithotomy and its feasibility even in old people., Conclusion: De Medicina Methodicawas a modern monograph devoted to clinical medicine including urinary disease. The book reflected the polyhedral personality of the author, his experience as physician of the Republic of Venice at Cairo, and his capabilities as a director of the Botanical Garden of the University of Padua, a unique research centre in those times.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Ruta is a genus of Rutaceae family. It features mainly shrubby plants, native to the Mediterranean region and present in traditional medicine of this region since Antiquity. The three most diffused species Ruta chalepensis L., Ruta graveolens L., and Ruta montana (L.) L., are morphologically poorly differentiated and were probably interchangeably used during Antiquity., Aim of the Study: Hippocratic and contemporary medical applications of the Ruta genus in the Mediterranean were compared to check if they result from a continuity of use from the ancient times to nowadays., Results: Ruta spp. was mainly employed in medical preparations by Hippocratic physicians as an abortifacient and emmenagogue. In addition to gynaecological conditions, in several treatises of the Corpus HippocraticumRuta spp. were also recommended as a specific remedy against pulmonary diseases. Ruta spp. leaves and also roots and seeds, were administered for internal use by Hippocratic physicians after having been soaked in wine or mixed with honey or its derivatives. Contemporary traditional uses of Ruta spp. have been assessed in detail in the whole Mediterranean area., Conclusion: Nowadays, Ruta spp. is used to treat different conditions but, as a general rule, the external uses are preferred as the toxicity of the plant is widely acknowledged.

This article gathers the data on the plants used for the treatment of pathologies of kidneys and the urinary tract from the most ancient medical texts of classical antiquity, the Corpus Hippocraticum , the Aristotelian Problems , and De Materia Medica by Dioscorides. If hippocratic information is scant and practical, aristotelian are of a more theoretical nature and propose an explanation of the action of drugs on the urinary tract. De Materia Medica , coming after a possible research activity in the Alexandrian School, reports the action of many drugs. The work had a deep influence on the subsequent centuries, up to the birth of modern pharmacochemistry.

Bioassay-guided fractionation of the ethyl acetate extract of Ruta graveolens (common rue) leaves led to the isolation of the furanocoumarins 5-methoxypsoralen (5-MOP), 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), and the quinolone alkaloid graveoline as phytotoxic constituents. Graveoline and 8-MOP substantially inhibited growth of Lactuca sativa (lettuce) seedlings and reduced chlorophyll content at 100 microM; this effect was not due to a direct effect on chlorophyll synthesis. Radical growth of L. sativa was inhibited by 10 microM 8-MOP. Graveoline inhibited growth of Lemna paucicostata (duckweed) at 100 microM. This is the first report of the phytotoxic activity of graveoline. Growth of Agrostis stolonifera (bentgrass) was inhibited by 5-MOP at 30 microM. All three compounds substantially reduced cell division in Allium cepa (onion) at or below 100 microM. None of the compounds caused significant cellular leakage of Cucumis sativus (cucumber) cotyledon disks at 100 microM. All three compounds inhibit plant growth, at least partially through inhibition of cell division.

Ancient texts contain an extremely large and readily accessible body of information on traditional medicine describing a range of plants and other substances that have been recently investigated systematically. However, prospecting for drugs from herbals raises problems with philology and plant identification. We combined our expertise to re-examine Squill an ancient medicinal plant which deserves modern scientific investigation. For this, invaluable help has come from new computer technologies which allow access to the most important libraries of the History of Medicine.

Bioassay-directed isolation of antifungal compounds from an ethyl acetate extract of Ruta graveolens leaves yielded two furanocoumarins, one quinoline alkaloid, and four quinolone alkaloids, including a novel compound, 1-methyl-2-[6'-(3' ',4' '-methylenedioxyphenyl)hexyl]-4-quinolone. The (1)H and (13)C NMR assignments of the new compound are reported. Antifungal activities of the isolated compounds, together with 7-hydroxycoumarin, 4-hydroxycoumarin, and 7-methoxycoumarin, which are known to occur in Rutaceae species, were evaluated by bioautography and microbioassay. Four of the alkaloids had moderate activity against Colletotrichum species, including a benomyl-resistant C. acutatum. These compounds and the furanocoumarins 5- and 8-methoxypsoralen had moderate activity against Fusarium oxysporum. The novel quinolone alkaloid was highly active against Botrytis cinerea. Phomopsis species were much more sensitive to most of the compounds, with P. viticola being highly sensitive to all of the compounds.

Joseph Andreas Jacobus Plenck was born in 1735 in Vienna where he studied surgery with Johan Christian Retter. At age 35 he was appointed Professor of Surgery and Obstetrics by Maria Theresia. Subsequently he became professor and life long secretary of the Medical Military Academy know as the Josephinum where he worked up to 1807. He was one of the most brilliant scientific writers of his time. Here we analyze his medical treatise, Icones Plantarum Medicinalium secundum systema Lynnaei cum enumeratione virium et usus medici, chirurgici et diaetetici, published in folio in Latin and German. This is a therapy based on plants in which the author discusses the medical use of 758 plants. This article is centered on 111 plants with diuretic properties which still appear in many pharmacopoeias., (Copyright 2002 S. Karger AG, Basel)

The leap in scientific discoveries made with new computer technologies can be compared to the invention of the printing press and expanding scientific thought in the 16th century. Nowadays, new communication technologies offering a multimedia contribution illustrate the fascinating reality of scientific exploration even for individuals who can otherwise not be reached. Since rare books are usually kept in libraries with limited access, the strict safekeeping, however, often overrides the need for academic consultation. Moreover, rare manuscripts are often illustrated with figures that are just as important as the written texts, but which are also unavailable. We combined our expertise in biology, medicine and multimedia to produce a CD-ROM with a hyperlinked text on the scientific revolution of the 16th century, focusing on the early conceptualization of life sciences in Europe. In this paper we show the first page of Malpighi's Epistle II (De pulmonibus - on the Lungs) as it appeared in Opera Omnia published in London (1686) by the Royal Society.

Ecological and ethnobotanical aspects of some halophylous plants are presented. These plants possess several morphophysiological adaptations to face salinity in their habitats. They are a source of salt and could represent new potential crops in saline environments.

The De Materia Medica of the Greek Dioscorides reports about 200 plants used for the treatment of pathologies of the urogenital tract during the 1st century AD. On the basis of explicit and implicit affirmations by Dioscorides, a theoretical system concerning the specific properties of these plants has been attempted. Comparison of the species reported by Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder for renal affections does not support the thesis of a close relationship between De Materia Medica and the Naturalis Historia.

An aqueous extract ofRuta graveolens L. (250 g/liter) was tested for its allelopathic activity in vitro on radish germination and radicle growth in light and darkness. It caused a delay in the onset and a decrease in the rate of germination (40%) in the light. The photoinhibition of germination was accompanied by an inhibition of water uptake into the seed. Furthermore, the inhibition of radicle growth was slightly higher in the light than in darkness. Three potential allelochemicals, biologically active in the light, were isolated from the extract: 5-methoxypsoralen (5-MOP), 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), and 4-hydroxy-coumarin at concentrations of 10(-4) M, 2×10(-4) M, and 0.4 ×10(-5) M respectively. At a concentration of 2×10(-4) M, 5-MOP was the most potent inhibitor, decreasing radish germination to 32% and radicle growth to 17% with respect to control. Microscopic observations of radish seeds treated with 5-MOP suggest that this substance changes the swelling of the seed coat and aleurone layer, which precedes radicle protrusion.

The Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder consists of 37 books, of which 16 are devoted to botany. About 900 plants are named, but many names are synonyms and identification is often impossible. Where identification is possible it is achieved by comparison of the actual names with the vernacular names in related languages or by indirect evidence from their medical use. In this way 130 plants used in renal therapy during Roman times can be identified. Many were eaten as part of the diet, and the distinction between medicinal and edible plants was not clearcut. Pliny was also the first author to comment that wild species are more active than cultivated ones. Most of the plants reported by Pliny are also mentioned by Dioscorides, and more than 30 of them were also listed by Plenck. Several are still quoted in modern pharmacopeias.

Joseph Jacob Plenck (1735-1807) is considered to be the forerunner of modern European dermatology, who also compiled a list of about 800 plants with medicinal uses. Of these about 115 have diuretic properties and are currently included in various pharmacopeias. They were traditionally used to cure ascites of various causes, in urolithiasis, nephritis, cystitis, bladder ulcers, strangury, urinary retention and incontinence. Few of these plants have been fully investigated by modern medicinal chemists, and many are worthy of further study.

Thirteen natural and synthetic phenylpropanoids as well as coumarin (2×10(4)M) were tested for their biological activity on radish germination and subsequent root growth in light and darkness. Coumarin was the most potent inhibitor. With some exceptions, phenylpropanoids with a carboxylic group in the side chain inhibited root growth. Coumarin was formed spontaneously by photooxidation of 2-hydroxycinnamic acid. Microscopic observations of root treated with coumarin suggest that this substance inhibits the elongation of cells of the differentiating zone of the root.

Among the substances isolated from ethyl ether extract ofPistia stratiotes L., linoleic acid,γ-linolenic acid, (12R,9Z,13E,15Z)-l2-hydroxy- 9,13,15-octadecatrienoicacid, (9S,10E,12Z,15Z)-9-hydroxy-10,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, α-asarone, and 24S-ethyl-4,22-cholestadiene-3,6-dione were found to inhibit the growth of some microalgae in solid medium. Toxicity of α-asarone on the growth of sensitive algal strains in liquid medium is discussed.

The ether extract ofTypha latifolia L. inhibited the growth of some microalgae. Among the substances chromatographically isolated and characterized from the ether extract, three steroids [β-sitosterol, (20S) 24-methylenlophenol, and stigmast-4-ene-3,6-dione] and three fatty acids [α- linolenic, linoleic, and an unidentified C8∶2] were found to inhibit the growth of some microalgae tested. A selective effect of these substance on blue-green algae (particularly on T 625Synechococcus leopoliensis and on T 1444Anabaena flosaquae) was observed.

Two strains of Cyanidium caldarium, one able to utilize nitrate as a substrate, and the other not, were tested for the presence of enzymes of ammonia assimilation. The nitrate-assimilating strain exhibits glutamate dehydrogenase activity. By contrast, the other strain lacks glutamate dehydrogenase; it possesses high alanine dehydrogenase and L-alanine aminotransferase activities which suggest that this strain may incorporate ammonia through reductive amination of pyruvate and may form glutamate from 2-ketoglutarate by a transamination reaction with alanine. Neither strain reveals glutamate synthase activity. Both strains contain similar levels of glutamine synthetase.

Studies on nitrate reductase (NAD(P)H:nitrate oxidoreductases EC 1.6.6.2) of Cyanidium caldarium revealed that the enzyme is inhibited by excess of electron donor, NADPH, reduced benzylviologen and FMN. Also dithionite, used to reduce benzylviologen and FMN, inactivates nitrate reductase: however, FMN at an optimal concentration and nitrate, added before the dithionite, protect the enzyme against this inactivation. Cyanide, cyanate and carbamyl phosphate inhibit the enzyme competitively with respect to nitrate, and Ki values are reported. Organic mercurials, 0.1 mM, act preferentially on NADPH activity, whereas Ag+ and Hg-2+ at the same concentration inactivate 80--90% of the benzylviologen and FMN activities. ADP is very poor inhibitor. Urea 4 M in 2 h destroys 90% of the NADPH activity and only 30% of the benzylviologen and FMN activities. The apparent Km values for NADPH, benzylviologen, FMN and nitrate have been determined.

Two strains of Cyandium caladarium which possess different biochemical and nutritional characteristics were examined with respect to their ability to utilize amino acids or 2-ketoglutarate as substrates. One strain utilizes alanine, glutamate or aspartate as nitrogen sources, and glutamate, alanine, or 2-ketoglutarate as carbon and energy sources for growth in the dark. The growth rate in the dark on 2-ketoglutarate is almost twice as high or higher than that on glutamate or alanine. During growth or incubation of this alga on amino acids, large amounts of ammonia are formed; however, ammonia formation is strongly inhibited by 2-ketoglutarate. The capacity of the alga and develops fully only when the cells are grown or incubated in the presence of glutamate.