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Background: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major public health problem in Nepal, high in settings marked by prevalent gender and social inequities. Various social stratifiers intersect, either privileging or oppressing individuals based on their characteristics and contexts, thereby increasing risks, vulnerabilities and marganilisation associated with TB. This study aimed to assess the inclusiveness of gender and other social stratifiers in key health related national policies and the Health Management Information System (HMIS) of National Tuberculosis Programme (NTP) by conducting an intersectional analysis of TB cases recorded via HMIS., Methods: A desk review of key policies and the NTP's HMIS was conducted. Retrospective intersectional analysis utilized two secondary data sources: annual NTP report (2017-2021) and records of 628 TB cases via HMIS 6.5 from two TB centres (2017/18-2018/19). Chi-square test and multi-variate analysis was used to assess the association between social stratifers and types of TB, registration category and treatment outcome., Results: Gender, social inclusion and concept of intersectionality are incorporated into various health policies and strategies but lack effective implementation. NTP has initiated the collection of age, sex, ethnicity and location data since 2014/15 through the HMIS. However, only age and sex disaggregated data are routinely reported, leaving recorded social stratifiers of TB patients static without analysis and dissemination. Furthermore, findings from the intersectional analysis using TB secondary data, showed that male more than 25 years exhibited higher odds [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 4.95, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.60-19.06, P = 0.01)] of successful outcome compared to male TB patients less than 25 years. Similarly, sex was significantly associated with types of TB (P < 0.05) whereas both age (P < 0.05) and sex (P < 0.05) were significantly associated with patient registration category (old/new cases)., Conclusions: The results highlight inadequacy in the availability of social stratifiers in the routine HMIS. This limitation hampers the NTP's ability to conduct intersectional analyses, crucial for unveiling the roles of other social determinants of TB. Such limitation underscores the need for more disaggregated data in routine NTP to better inform policies and plans contributing to the development of a more responsive and equitable TB programme and effectively addressing disparities., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Despite evidence that iron and folic acid (IFA) supplements can improve anaemia in pregnant women, uptake in Nepal is suboptimal. We hypothesised that providing virtual counselling twice in mid-pregnancy, would increase compliance to IFA tablets during the COVID-19 pandemic compared with antenatal care (ANC alone., Methods and Analysis: This non-blinded individually randomised controlled trial in the plains of Nepal has two study arms: (1) control: routine ANC; and (2) 'Virtual' antenatal counselling plus routine ANC. Pregnant women are eligible to enrol if they are married, aged 13-49 years, able to respond to questions, 12-28 weeks' gestation, and plan to reside in Nepal for the next 5 weeks. The intervention comprises two virtual counselling sessions facilitated by auxiliary nurse midwives at least 2 weeks apart in mid-pregnancy. Virtual counselling uses a dialogical problem-solving approach with pregnant women and their families. We randomised 150 pregnant women to each arm, stratifying by primigravida/multigravida and IFA consumption at baseline, providing 80% power to detect a 15% absolute difference in primary outcome assuming 67% prevalence in control arm and 10% loss-to-follow-up. Outcomes are measured 49-70 days after enrolment, or up to delivery otherwise., Primary Outcome: consumption of IFA on at least 80% of the previous 14 days., Secondary Outcomes: dietary diversity, consumption of intervention-promoted foods, practicing ways to enhance bioavailability and knowledge of iron-rich foods. Our mixed-methods process evaluation explores acceptability, fidelity, feasibility, coverage (equity and reach), sustainability and pathways to impact. We estimate costs and cost-effectiveness of the intervention from a provider perspective. Primary analysis is by intention-to-treat, using logistic regression., Ethics and Dissemination: We obtained ethical approval from Nepal Health Research Council (570/2021) and UCL ethics committee (14301/001). We will disseminate findings in peer-reviewed journal articles and by engaging policymakers in Nepal., Trial Registration Number: ISRCTN17842200., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Introduction: Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) have become the leading public health problems worldwide and the cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is one of the major NCDs. Female Community Health Volunteers (FCHVs) in Nepal are the key drivers to implementing frontline health services. We explored the potential for engaging FCHVs for CVD risk screening at the community level in Nepal., Methods: We used multiple approaches (quantitative and qualitative) for data collection. The trained FCHVs administered CVD risk screening questionnaire among 491 adults in rural and urban areas and calculated the CVD risk scores. To maintain consistency and quality, a registered medical doctor also, using the same risk scoring chart, independently calculated the CVD risk scores. Kappa statistics and concordance coefficient were used to compare these two sets of risk screening results. Sensitivity and specificity analyses were conducted. Two focus group discussions among the FCHVs were conducted to determine their experiences with CVD risk screening and willingness to engage with CVD prevention and control efforts., Results: The mean level of agreement between two sets of risk screening results was 94.5% (Kappa = 0.77, P<0.05). Sensitivity of FCHV screening was 90.3% (95% CI: 0.801-0.964); and the specificity was 97% (95% CI: 0.948, 0.984). FCHVs who participated in the FGDs expressed a strong enthusiasm and readiness to using the CVD risk screening tools. Despite their busy workload, all FCHVs showed high level of motivation and willingness in using CVD risk screening tools and contribute to the prevention and control efforts of NCDs. The FCHVs recommended needs for providing additional training and capacity building opportunities., Conclusion: We conclude that there is a potential for engaging FCHVs to use simple CVD risk screening tools at the community level. The findings are promising, however, further studies engaging larger number of FCHVs and larger population would warrant feasibility of such tools within the existing healthcare systems in Nepal., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background and Objectives: People receiving treatment for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) have high rates of depression. Psychosocial support in general, and treatments for depression in particular, form an important but neglected area of patient-centred care, and a key pillar in the global End TB strategy. We assessed the feasibility and acceptability of a psychosocial support package for people receiving treatment for MDR-TB in Nepal., Methods: This feasibility study used a mixed quantitative and qualitative approach. We implemented the intervention package in two National Tuberculosis Programme (NTP) MDR-TB treatment centres and 8 sub-centres. We screened patients monthly for depression and anxiety (cut-off ≥24 and ≥17 respectively on the Hopkins Symptom Checklist) and also for low social support (cut-off ≤3 on the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support). Those who screened positive on either screening tool received the Healthy Activity Program (HAP), which uses brief counselling based on behavioural activation theory. Other aspects of the psychosocial package were information/education materials and group interactions with other patients., Results: We screened 135 patients, of whom 12 (9%) received HAP counselling, 115 (85%) received information materials, 80 (59%) received an education session and 49 (36%) received at least one group session. Eight group sessions were conducted in total. All aspects of the intervention package were acceptable to patients, including the screening, information, group work and counselling. Patients particularly valued having someone to talk to about their concerns and worries. We were able to successfully train individuals with no experience of psychological counselling to deliver HAP., Conclusion: This psychosocial support package is acceptable to patients. The information materials we developed are feasible to deliver in the current NTP. However, the structured psychological counselling (HAP), is not feasible in the current NTP due to time constraints. This requires additional investment of counsellors in TB clinics., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) poses a major threat to public health worldwide, particularly in low-income countries. The current long (20 month) and arduous treatment regime uses powerful drugs with side-effects that include mental ill-health. It has a high loss-to-follow-up (25%) and higher case fatality and lower cure-rates than those with drug sensitive tuberculosis (TB). While some national TB programmes provide small financial allowances to patients, other aspects of psychosocial ill-health, including iatrogenic ones, are not routinely assessed or addressed. We aimed to develop an intervention to improve psycho-social well-being for MDR-TB patients in Nepal. To do this we conducted qualitative work with MDR-TB patients, health professionals and the National TB programme (NTP) in Nepal. We conducted semi-structured interviews (SSIs) with 15 patients (10 men and 5 women, aged 21 to 68), four family members and three frontline health workers. In addition, three focus groups were held with MDR-TB patients and three with their family members. We conducted a series of meetings and workshops with key stakeholders to design the intervention, working closely with the NTP to enable government ownership. Our findings highlight the negative impacts of MDR-TB treatment on mental health, with greater impacts felt among those with limited social and financial support, predominantly married women. Michie et al's (2011) framework for behaviour change proved helpful in identifying corresponding practice- and policy-level changes. The findings from this study emphasise the need for tailored psycho-social support. Recent work on simple psychological support packages for the general population can usefully be adapted for use with people with MDR-TB., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: People with multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) in low-income countries face many problems during treatment, and cure rates are low. The purpose of the study was (a) to identify and document the problems experienced by people receiving care for MDR-TB, and how they cope when support is not provided, to inform development of strategies; (b) to estimate the effectiveness of two resultant strategies, counselling alone, and joint counselling and financial support, of increasing DOTS-plus treatment success under routine programme conditions., Methods: A mixed-method study comprising a formative qualitative study, pilot intervention study and explanatory qualitative study to better understand barriers to completion of treatment for MDR-TB. Participants were all people starting MDR-TB treatment in seven DOTS-plus centres in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal during January to December 2008. The primary outcome measure was cure, as internationally defined., Results: MDR-TB treatment caused extreme social, financial and employment hardship. Most patients had to move house and leave their job, and reported major stigmatisation. They were concerned about the long-term effects of their disease, and feared infecting others. In the resultant pilot intervention study, the two strategies appeared to improve treatment outcomes: cure rates for those receiving counselling, combined support and no support were 85%, 76% and 67% respectively. Compared with no support, the (adjusted) risk ratios of cure for those receiving counselling and receiving combined support were 1.2 (95% CI 1.0 to 1.6) and 1.2 (95% CI 0.9 to 1.6) respectively. The explanatory study demonstrated that patients valued both forms of support., Conclusions: MDR-TB patients are extremely vulnerable to stigma and extreme financial hardship. Provision of counselling and financial support may not only reduce their vulnerability, but also increase cure rates. National Tuberculosis Programmes should consider incorporating financial support and counselling into MDR-TB care: costs are low, and benefits high, especially since costs to society of incomplete treatment and potential for incurable TB are extremely high.

Objective: To establish which of the many possible linkages between tuberculosis (TB), direct observation of treatment (DOTS), and the social reality of migrant workers in Kathmandu are the most relevant to the health outcomes and economic and social well-being of these populations, and which are amenable to possible interventions and high-yield policy changes., Methods: Fourteen semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted through an interpreter with male migrant TB patients aged 18-50 years recruited from three DOTS clinics in the Kathmandu valley in May 2005. The interviews were coded using constant comparison and analysed using a grounded theory method., Results: The economic burden of TB treatment is far greater than the financial reserve of migrants. Consequently remittances sent to families are reduced and migrants remain in debt long after treatment completion, tied to the treatment location paying off high interest loans. Forced to attend clinics far away from their home, and isolated by the stigma associated with TB, migrants are vulnerable without social support networks. Migrants find that daily clinic visits are incompatible with working schedules and important cultural festivals, which forces them into defaulting., Conclusion: The needs of migrant workers with TB living in Kathmandu are not being adequately met. Current service provision needs to be reviewed to build in greater flexibility and support for migrant men.

Background: Two TB control strategies appropriate for South Asia (a community-based DOTS [CBD] strategy and a family-based DOTS [FBD] strategy) have been shown to be effective in Nepal in meeting the global target for the proportion of registered patients successfully treated. Here we estimate the costs and cost-effectiveness of the two strategies. This information is essential to allow meaningful comparisons between these and other strategies and will contribute to the small but growing body of knowledge on the costs and cost-effectiveness of different approaches to TB control., Methods: In 2001-2, costs relating to TB diagnosis and care were collected for each strategy. Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect costs from health facility records and a sample of 10 patients in each of 10 districts, 3 using CBD and 2 using FBD. The data collected included costs to the health care system and social costs (including opportunity costs) incurred by patients and their supervisors. The cost-effectiveness of each strategy was estimated., Results: Total recurrent costs per patient using the CBD and FBD strategies were US$76.2 and US$84.1 respectively. The social costs incurred by patients and their supervisors represent more than a third of total recurrent costs under each strategy (37% and 35% respectively). The CBD strategy was more cost-effective than the FBD strategy: recurrent costs per successful treatment were US$91.8 and US$102.2 respectively., Discussion: Although the CBD strategy was more cost-effective than the FBD strategy in the study context, the estimates of cost-effectiveness were sensitive to relatively small changes in underlying costs and treatment outcomes. Even using these relatively patient-friendly approaches to DOTS, social costs can represent a significant financial burden for TB patients.

Background: Tuberculosis (TB) is a major cause of death. The condition is highly stigmatised, with considerable discrimination towards sufferers. Although there have been several studies assessing the extent of such discrimination, there is little published research explicitly investigating the causes of the stigma and discrimination associated with TB. The objectives of our research were therefore to take the first steps towards determining the causes of discrimination associated with TB., Methods: Data collection was performed in Kathmandu, Nepal. Thirty four in-depth interviews were performed with TB patients, family members of patients, and members of the community., Results: Causes of self-discrimination identified included fear of transmitting TB, and avoiding gossip and potential discrimination. Causes of discrimination by members of the general public included: fear of a perceived risk of infection; perceived links between TB and other causes of discrimination, particularly poverty and low caste; perceived links between TB and disreputable behaviour; and perceptions that TB was a divine punishment. Furthermore, some patients felt they were discriminated against by health workers, Conclusion: A comprehensive package of interventions, tailored to the local context, will be needed to address the multiple causes of discrimination identified: basic population-wide health education is unlikely to be effective.

Background: In South Asia a large number of patients seek treatment for TB from private practitioners (PPs), and there is increasing international interest in involving PPs in TB control. To evaluate the feasibility, effectiveness and costs of public-private partnerships (PPPs) for TB control, a PPP was developed in Lalitpur municipality, Nepal, where it is estimated that 50% of patients with TB are managed in the private sector. From the clinical perspective the PPP was shown to be effective. The aim of this paper is to assess and report on the costs involved in the PPP scheme., Methods: The approach to costing took a comprehensive view, with inclusion of costs not only incurred by health facilities but also social costs borne by patients and their escorts. Semi-structured questionnaires and guided interviews were used to collect start-up and recurrent costs for the scheme., Results: Overall costs for treating a TB patient under the PPP scheme averaged US$89.60. Start-up costs per patient represented 12% of the total budget. Half of recurrent costs were incurred by patients and their escorts, with institutional costs representing most of the rest. Female patients tended to spend more and patients referred from the private sector had the highest reported costs., Conclusion: Treating TB patients in the PPP scheme had a low additional cost, while doubling the case notification rate and maintaining a high success rate. Costs incurred by patients and their escorts were the largest contributors to the overall total. This suggests a focus for follow-up studies and for cost-minimisation strategies.

Purpose: The purpose of the paper is to show that community involvement is a successful way of overcoming certain barriers to the successful management of the current tuberculosis epidemic, namely delayed presentation and non-completion of treatment. Volunteers are an important resource for engaging with the community. This research, conducted in an urban TB treatment centre in Nepal, seeks to investigate the motivations of TB volunteers, and how these motivations can be increased to involve volunteers, and the community, in fulfilling their maximum potential in delivering successful TB treatment programmes., Design/methodology/approach: Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 26 TB volunteers, followed by volunteer discussion groups. Topics covered included: detailed accounts of the volunteers' many and varied roles; motivations - how they initially became involved and why they continue to be involved; incentives for volunteering; problems they have encountered; family and friends' attitudes to their volunteering, and the future of TB volunteering., Findings: The findings show that the TB volunteers are involved in many important roles. Volunteers initially became involved, having been asked or informed about the programme by area committee members, staff or friends. Most were also involved in other voluntary work., Originality/value: This paper gives recommendations for volunteer programmes in developing countries including: sustained communication and contact between volunteers and the organisation; volunteer programmes based in a centre with an established community focus; flexibility of time commitment; regular recruitment drives for volunteers from different generations and status levels; and the use of training as a possible incentive for volunteering.

Background: A key component of the DOTS strategy for tuberculosis control (short-course chemotherapy following WHO guidelines) is direct observation of treatment. WHO technical guidelines recommend that health workers should undertake this part of the strategy, but will also accept direct observation of treatment in the community; WHO does not think that a family member should undertake this role. Supporting evidence for these recommendations is not available. The Nepal national tuberculosis programme asked us to develop and test a strategy of direct observation of treatment for the hill districts of Nepal, where direct observation of treatment by health workers is not feasible. We aimed to assess the success rates of two DOTS strategies developed for such areas., Methods: Between mid-July, 2002, and mid-July, 2003, we undertook a cluster-randomised controlled trial to compare two strategies-community DOTS and family-member DOTS--in ten hill and mountain districts of Nepal. Districts were used as the unit of randomisation. Primary outcome was success rate (proportion of registered patients who achieved cure or completed treatment), and analysis was by intention to treat., Findings: Five districts (549 patients) were allocated to community DOTS and five (358 patients) were allocated family-member DOTS. Community DOTS and family-member DOTS achieved success rates of 85% and 89%, respectively (odds ratio of success for community DOTS relative to family-member DOTS, 0.67 [95% CI 0.41-1.10]; p=0.09). Estimated case-finding rates were 63% with the community strategy and 44% with family-member DOTS., Interpretation: The family-member DOTS and community DOTS strategies can both attain international targets for treatment success under programme conditions, and thus are appropriate for the hill and mountain districts of Nepal. Both strategies might also be appropriate in other parts of the world where directly observed treatment by health workers is not feasible. Our findings lend support to adoption of this patient-responsive approach to direct observation of treatment within global tuberculosis control policy.

Experience shows that planners need to consider the effect of the process of decentralisation on national health programmes. The aim of this article is to explore the relationship between decentralisation and a national disease control programme by seeking to understand the views and attitudes of staff working in a national TB control programme on the process of change and their involvement in that change. The study to which this paper refers was performed in Nepal, where, in common with several low- and middle-income countries, a Local Self Governance Act has been passed and decentralisation is in the process of being introduced in the health sector. The aim of the study was to develop a process of initial dialogue among programme staff with a view to exemplifying those enabling and disabling factors which could influence the process and content of health systems development and its impact on health and health care. The study used individual interviews and group discussions to increase our understanding of the experience of different stakeholders at both national and district levels. Important problems identified include: confused lines of authority, difficulties of integrated supervision, poor career paths and promotion possibilities, unclear performance management, lack of priority to be given to health and TB control, lack of local accountability, lack of capacity and the risk to the drug supply. The study highlights the need to (a) develop consensus techniques, achieve a balanced appreciation and include all stakeholders in the process of change and (b) define central and local responsibilities, limiting political bias, maintaining quality control, organising different lines of authority, maintaining priorities and programme integration.

Objectives: To implement and evaluate a public-private partnership to deliver the internationally recommended strategy DOTS for the control of tuberculosis (TB) in Lalitpur municipality, Nepal, where it is estimated that 50% of patients with TB are managed in the private sector., Methods: A local working group developed a public-private partnership for control of TB, which included diagnosis by private practitioners, direct observation of treatment and tracing of patients who missed appointments by nongovernmental organizations, and provision of training and drugs by the Nepal National TB Programme (NTP). The public-private partnership was evaluated through baseline and follow-up surveys of private practitioners, private pharmacies, and private laboratories, together with records kept by the Nepal NTP., Findings: In the first 36 months, 1328 patients with TB were registered in the public-private partnership. Treatment success rates were >90%, and <1% of patients defaulted. Case notification of sputum-positive patients in the study area increased from 54 per 100 000 to 102 per 100 000. The numbers of patients with TB started on treatment by private practitioners decreased by more than two-thirds, the number of private pharmacies that stocked anti-TB drugs by one-third, the number of pharmacies selling anti-TB drugs by almost two-thirds, and sales of anti-TB drugs in pharmacies by almost two-thirds. Private practitioners were happy to refer patients to the public-private partnership. Not all private practitioners had to be involved: many patients bypassed private practitioners and went directly to free DOTS centres., Conclusions: A combination of the strengths of private practitioners, nongovernmental organizations, and the public sector in a public-private partnership can be used to provide a service that is liked by patients and gives high rates of treatment success and increased rates of patient notification. Similar public-private partnerships are likely to be replicable elsewhere, as inputs are not large and no special requirements exist.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health problem and the world's foremost cause of death from a single infectious agent. Despite the increasing number of TB patients who seek help in the private sector, there are few practical examples of how to create a public/private linkage of TB services. The paper presents a pilot service-linkage project between the public and private sector in TB control in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The study documents and examines the process of the service-linkage project through the undertaking of a longitudinal analytical case study. A detailed description of the project from formulation to a short-term evaluation is given. The analysis relates the activities and early outcomes of the service-linkage project to the context, characteristics and interactions of the organizations involved. The study reveals that although the involved organizations initially agreed on the objective of the service-linkage project, differences in capacity, motivation, environment and needs had implications for the implementation and short-term success of the project. The public sector, despite the will, did not have the structure or resources to engage with the private sector. The private sector lacked interest in public health aspects of TB treatment and trust in the public sector. The study points to two different organizations that have the potential capacities to act as mediators between the public and private sectors: international research institutions and non-governmental organizations.