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Objectives: With the increased use of 3D-generated images in biological research, there is a critical need to adapt classical anatomical measurements, traditionally conducted with calipers, to a virtual environment. We present detailed protocols for measuring bicondylar length, a critical dimension of the femur, using three different imaging software programs-3D Slicer™, Amira™, and Simpleware™. These protocols provide researchers and practitioners in radiology, orthopedics, biomechanics, and biological anthropology with accurate and reproducible measurement techniques. The objective is to standardize and support virtual osteology in biomechanical research, stature estimation, and related medical and anthropological studies., Materials and Methods: Adhering to standardized protocols, we adapted femoral bicondylar length measurements for computed tomography images from a New Mexican collection (n = 10). The method was designed for applicability and reproducibility across three software platforms. By comparing measurements from the same sample across different observers and different platforms, this study validates the accuracy and consistency of the adapted protocol, demonstrating its utility for research and clinical assessments., Results: We present a step-by-step guide for each program, detailing bone alignment and measurement. We illustrate each step and provide video tutorials via links for an enhanced understanding of the process., Discussion: Bicondylar length can be measured effectively in each software program following the provided instructions. However, ease of measurement varied among the programs, with some offering a more straightforward process. This variability underscores the importance of choosing appropriate software for the user's needs and proficiency. It also suggests areas for improvement and standardization in software design and instructional clarity., (© 2024 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Acyline contraception has been described in cats, but few data are available on the drug's long-term effect on growth. The relevant data cover until puberty with no radiographic description. We investigated the radiographic parameters throughout bone growth in order to more completely determine the drug's safety. Thirteen male and 12 female cats were studied, with the kittens being randomly assigned to one of the following groups within the first 24 hours of birth: ACY, subcutaneous acyline, 33 µg/100 g, which injection was repeated weekly until age 3 months; or CO, untreated control. Body measurements were recorded weekly and radiographic parameters obtained from monthly radiographs of the antebrachium. In the ACY and CO male and female kittens, the body weight, withers height, and body length plus the age at the end of body growth and radial growth remained similar throughout the study (P> .05). Both female groups finished radial growth before the males (P< .05). The ACY females evidenced a longer radial length between the eighth and 28th weeks (P< .05). All groups closed their proximal and distal physes within the normal ranges described for the species. The bone-cortex width was lower in the ACY vs. the CO animals at weeks 52 and 60 in the males and at weeks 24, 48, 52, and 56 in the females (P< .05) The transient greater radial length and lower bone-cortex thickness observed in the treated cats were compensated for at the end of growth with no adverse clinical effects being observed. In conclusion, acyline as a contraceptive did not evidence a permanent or severe effect on domestic-cat growth., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Although it is common to measure bone lengths for study, methodological errors in data measurement and processing often invalidate their clinical and scientific usefulness. This manuscript reviews the validity of several published equations used to determine the maximum height in older adults, since height is an anthropometric parameter widely employed in health sciences. A systematic review of original articles published in the English, Spanish, or Portuguese languages was performed in PubMed, ScienceDirect, EBSCO, Springer Link, and two institutional publisher integrators (UACJ and CONRICYT). The search terms were included in the metasearch engines in a combined way and text form using the Boolean connectors AND and OR {(Determination OR Estimation OR Equation) AND Height AND (Elderly OR "Older adults")}. Eleven manuscripts were selected from 1935 records identified through database searching after applying the following criteria: (1) original articles that designed and validated equations for the determination of height by anthropometric methods in adults 60 years of age and older and (2) manuscripts that presented robust evidence of validation of the proposed regression models. The validity of the reported linear regression models was assessed throughout a manuscript review process called multi-objective optimization that considered the collection of the models, the prediction errors, and the adjustment values (i.e., R 2 , standard error of estimation, and pure error). A total of 64 equations were designed and validated in 45,449 participants (57.1% women) from four continents: America (85.3%, with 46 equations), Asia (8.1%, with 10), Europe (4.6%, with 7), and Africa (2.0%, with 1); the Hispanic American ethnic group was the most numerous in participants and equations (69.0%, with 28). Due to various omissions and methodological errors, this study did not find any valid and reliable equations to assess the maximum height in older adults by anthropometric methods. It is proposed to adjust allometric mathematical models that can be interpreted in the light of ontogenetic processes.

The genetic and developmental mechanisms involved in limb formation are relatively well documented, but how these mechanisms are modulated by changes in chondrocyte physiology to produce differences in limb bone length remains unclear. Here, we used high throughput RNA sequencing (RNAseq) to probe the developmental genetic basis of variation in limb bone length in Longshanks, a mouse model of experimental evolution. We find that increased tibia length in Longshanks is associated with altered expression of a few key endochondral ossification genes such as Npr3, Dlk1, Sox9, and Sfrp1 , as well reduced expression of Fxyd2, a facultative subunit of the cell membrane-bound Na + /K + ATPase pump (NKA). Next, using murine tibia and cell cultures, we show a dynamic role for NKA in chondrocyte differentiation and in bone length regulation. Specifically, we show that pharmacological inhibition of NKA disrupts chondrocyte differentiation, by upregulating expression of mesenchymal stem cell markers ( Prrx1, Serpina3n ), downregulation of chondrogenesis marker Sox9 , and altered expression of extracellular matrix genes (e.g., collagens) associated with proliferative and hypertrophic chondrocytes. Together, Longshanks and in vitro data suggest a broader developmental and evolutionary role of NKA in regulating limb length diversity., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Marchini, Ashkin, Bellini, Sun, Workentine, Okuyan, Krawetz, Beier and Rolian.)

Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) 3 acts to negatively regulate multiple signaling pathways, including canonical Wnt signaling. The two mammalian GSK3 proteins (alpha and beta) are at least partially redundant. While Gsk3a KO mice are viable and display a metabolic phenotype, abnormal neuronal development, and accelerated aging, Gsk3b KO animals die late in embryogenesis or at birth. Selective Gsk3b KO in bone delays development of some bones, whereas cartilage-specific Gsk3b KO mice are normal except for elevated levels of GSK3A protein. However, the collective role of these two GSK3 proteins in cartilage was not evaluated. To address this, we generated tamoxifen-inducible, cartilage-specific Gsk3a/Gsk3b KO (described as "cDKO") in juvenile mice and investigated their skeletal phenotypes. We found that cartilage-specific Gsk3a/Gsk3b deletion in young, skeletally immature mice causes precocious growth plate (GP) remodeling, culminating in shorter long bones and hence, growth retardation. These mice exhibit inefficient breathing patterns at later stages and fail to survive. The disrupted GP in cDKO mice showed progressive loss of cellular and proteoglycan components, and immunostaining for SOX9, while BGLAP (osteocalcin) and COL2A1 increased. In addition, we observed increased osteoclast recruitment and cell apoptosis. Surprisingly, changes in articular cartilage of cDKO mice were mild compared with the GP, signifying differential regulation of articular cartilage vs GP tissues. Taken together, these findings emphasize a crucial role of two GSK3 proteins in skeletal development, in particular in the maintenance and function of GP. KEY MESSAGES: • Both GSK3 genes, together, are crucial regulators of growth plate remodeling. • Cartilage-specific deletion of both GSK3 genes causes skeletal growth retardation. • Deletion of both GSK3 genes decreases Sox9 levels and promotes chondrocyte apoptosis. • Cartilage-specific GSK3 deletion in juvenile mice culminates in premature lethality. • GSK3 deletion exhibits mild effects on articular cartilage compared to growth plate.

Bone size is an important trait for chickens because of its association with osteoporosis in layers and meat production in broilers. Here, we employed high density genotyping platforms to detect candidate genes for bone traits. Estimates of the narrow heritabilities ranged from 0.37 ± 0.04 for shank length to 0.59 ± 0.04 for tibia length. The dominance heritability was 0.12 ± 0.04 for shank length. Using a linear mixed model approach, we identified a promising locus within NCAPG on chromosome 4, which was associated with tibia length and mass, femur length and area, and shank length. In addition, three other loci were associated with bone size or mass at a Bonferroni-corrected genome-wide significance threshold of 1%. One region on chicken chromosome 1 between 168.38 and 171.82 Mb harbored HTR2A , LPAR6 , CAB39L , and TRPC4 . A second region that accounted for 2.2% of the phenotypic variance was located around WNT9A on chromosome 2, where allele substitution was predicted to be associated with tibia length. Four candidate genes identified on chromosome 27 comprising SPOP , NGFR , GIP , and HOXB3 were associated with tibia length and mass, femur length and area, and shank length. Genome partitioning analysis indicated that the variance explained by each chromosome was proportional to its length.

Background: Exposure to sub-optimal maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy has been linked to inadequate in utero bone growth with potential for post-natal deficits, but reported findings are inconsistent. Possible reasons include measurement error in assessing bone length/height, or lack of adjustment for confounding variables such as maternal/infant diet, physical activity and season of birth. The objective of this study was to determine the maternal and child factors associated with bone length traits in children at 3 years of age as part of a longitudinal follow-up of a pregnancy cohort., Methods: Mother-child dyads enrolled in the Family Atherosclerosis Monitoring In early Life study were included. Maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration was measured by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Anthropometry, physical activity by questionnaire and dietary assessment by food frequency questionnaire were completed for mothers during pregnancy (27-40 weeks gestation) and for children at 3 years with diet by 3-day food records (Nutritionist Pro). Whole body bone mineral density in mother and child (n = 473) was measured by dual-energy absorptiometry (DXA) at the 3 year visit. A software program was developed using MATLAB to derive bone length measurements from whole body DXA images using 8 long bones of each child. Association between maternal and child variables with offspring bone length was assessed using unadjusted and adjusted multivariate linear regression analyses., Results: In the final adjusted multivariate regression model, factors associated with child bone length were maternal height (p = 0.05), child birth length (p = 0.005) and child weight z-score at 3 years (p < 0.001). No association was observed between maternal serum 25(OH)D concentrations in pregnancy (of which 77% were in normal range) and child bone length., Conclusion: In healthy Canadian mothers and their children, the factors associated with child bone length achieved at 3 years of age appear to be related to genetic traits rather than environmental exposures. Measures of the length of long bones in children using DXA scans may have provided a more accurate assessment of bone length than whole body height measures., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Normal bone mineralization requires phosphate oversaturation in bone matrix vesicles, as well as normal regulation of phosphate metabolism via the interplay among bone, intestine, and kidney. In turn, derangement of phosphate metabolism greatly affects bone function and structure. The type III sodium-dependent phosphate transporters, PiT-1 and PiT-2, are believed to be important in tissue phosphate metabolism and physiological bone formation, but their requirement and molecular roles in bone remain poorly investigated. In order to decipher the role of PiT-2 in bone, we examined normal bone development, growth, and mineralization in global PiT-2 homozygous knockout mice. PiT-2 deficiency resulted in reduced vertebral column, femur, and tibia length as well as mandibular dimensions. Micro-computed tomography analysis revealed that bone mineral density in the mandible, femur, and tibia were decreased, indicating that maintenance of bone function and structure is impaired in both craniofacial and long bones of PiT-2 deficient mice. Both cortical and trabecular thickness and mineral density were reduced in PiT-2 homozygous knockout mice compared with wild-type mice. These results suggest that PiT-2 is involved in normal bone development and growth and plays roles in cortical and trabecular bone metabolism feasibly by regulating local phosphate transport and mineralization processes in the bone. Further studies that evaluate bone cell-specific loss of PiT-2 are now warranted and may yield insight into complex mechanisms of bone development and growth, leading to identification of new therapeutic options for patients with bone diseases., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of bone harvest length and multiple osteotomies on osteocutaneous radial forearm free flap (RFFF) complication rates., Methods: A retrospective chart review was conducted for patients undergoing osteocutaneous RFFF reconstruction during an 8-year period., Results: One hundred fifty-five osteocutaneous RFFF procedures were performed. Recipient-site flap complications were 18 of 55 (32.7%) when bone harvest length was less than 7 cm and 40 of 100 (40.0%) when it was ≥7 cm. No osteotomies were performed in 69 of 155 cases with a corresponding complication rate of 30.4% (21 of 69). One osteotomy was utilized in 69 of 155 flaps, whereas 17 of 155 required more than 1 osteotomy; complications were experienced in 42% (29 of 69) and 47% (8 of 17) of these cases, respectively., Conclusion: Osteocutaneous RFFF complication rates were only slightly higher when the bone length was ≥7 cm or when multiple osteotomies were required., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: It has been studied that the distribution of bone morphogenetic protein 2 is regular under bone defect situation., Objective: To observe the expression of bone morphogenetic protein 2 in rabbit radial defect site with different lengths., Methods: Forty-eight New Zealand rabbits were divided into two groups randomly. 0.5 cm bone defect and 3.0 cm bone defect were made by wire saw at the middle part of radius bone after anaesthesia., Results and Conclusions: Western blot results showed that in the 0.5 cm bone defect group, the expression of bone morphogenetic protein 2 of the tissues in the bone defect site was increased gradually at 1, 3, 4 weeks after operation, and the expression in each defect group was increased when compared with that immediately after injury (P<0.05). In the 3.0 cm bone defect group, the expression of bone morphogenetic protein 2 of tissues in bone defect site was increased gradually and reached to its peak at 3 weeks after the operation (P<0.05). The peak value in the 3.0 cm bone defect group was significantly higher than that in 0.5 cm bone defect group (P<0.05). The peak value was maintained in high level. The comparison of bone callus formation showed that the bone callus formation of 3.0 cm bone defect group was less than that of the 0.5 cm bone defect group at 3 and 4 weeks after operation (P<0.05). The results indicate that expression of the bone morphogenetic protein 2 in 3.0 cm bone defect site is increased significantly, but the expression level cannot make the bone defect heal itself.