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The current study analyzed the root causes of 22 helicopter accidents/incidents that took place between 1998 and 2019. Each root cause was coded using three commonly used classification models in aviation HFACS, ATSB, and IATA to identify recurring factors for better targeting of future prevention strategies. The frequency analysis revealed that not following procedure (22 observations), training inadequate or unavailable (17), inadequate regulatory oversight (17), inadequate procedure guidance (16), company management absent or deficient (10) and incorrect manuals/charts/checklists (9) were the most frequent contributing factors. Since none of the existing models could summarize the root causes of 22 occurrences effectively, a scenario-based human-machine-environment-procedure (HMEP) classification scheme was proposed to use organizational influences, people management, technical failure, procedure and document, and environment as the first-layer subcategories. The HMEP scheme was additionally applied to the analysis and coding of 4 helicopter accidents in the USA published by the NTSB. The HMEP scheme revealed that NTSB had identified a significantly greater number of root causes in the manufacturer design, manufacturing & documentation. Overall, HMEP can be used to guide the data collection during accident investigation and subsequently to aggregate aviation accidents to derive recurring factors and compare accident patterns in an efficient manner., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The current study illustrates the icon design process for 20 functions for a smart living room and smart bathroom of a commercial smart building control system. For each function name, seven icon formats (image-related, concept-related, semi-abstract, arbitrary, word, abbreviation, and combined) were developed by 30 graduate students and compared with a preference ranking test by another 13 executive MBA students. The results indicated that the combined, image-related, concept-related, semi-abstract, word, and abbreviation each had nine, four, three, two, one and one function names ranked as the most preferred format, respectively. Since all the design formats except the arbitrary format were ranked as the most preferred at least once, it is worthwhile to generate seven icon formats for a given function and chose the most preferred based on the ranking test result. The participatory design and ranking test evaluation approach can be applied for the design and evaluation of visual icons in other application contexts., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Both learning curve models and subjective mental workload are useful tools for determining the length of training for new workers and predicting future task performance. An experiment was designed to collect the task completion times and subjective mental workload of five driving tasks including (a) reverse into garage, (b) 3-point turn, (c) parallel parking, (d) S-curve and (e) up-down-hill. The results indicated that task completion times of truck driving can be predicted with a learning curve. Practice significantly reduced the mental workload rating. However, the novice trainees tended to have a more significant reduction because, compared to experienced trainees, they tended to give greater or lower workload scores than the experienced trainees before and after practice, respectively. The current study may not be complete enough to provide guidelines for a training programme, but it is adequate to suggest that learning rate and workload measure can serve as indexes for factoring in the individual differences. Practitioner summary: Learning curves can be used to determine the length of training for new workers and performance standards for a particular task. Learning rate and mental workload were found to be important measures for comparing individual differences in order to better design a training programme. However, mental workload must be evaluated by experienced participants.

The current study analyzed 312 caught-in-between fatalities caused by machinery and vehicles. A comprehensive and mutually exclusive coding scheme was developed to analyze and code each caught-in-between fatality in terms of age, gender, experience of the victim, type of industry, source of injury, and causes for these accidents. Boolean algebra analysis was applied on these 312 caught-in-between fatalities to derive minimal cut set (MCS) causes associated with each source of injury. Eventually, contributing factors and common accident patterns associated with (1) special process machinery including textile, printing, packaging machinery, (2) metal, woodworking, and special material machinery, (3) conveyor, (4) vehicle, (5) crane, (6) construction machinery, and (7) elevator can be divided into three major groups through Boolean algebra and MCS analysis. The MCS causes associated with conveyor share the same primary causes as those of the special process machinery including textile, printing, packaging and metal, woodworking, and special material machinery. These fatalities can be eliminated by focusing on the prevention measures associated with lack of safeguards, working on a running machine or process, unintentional activation, unsafe posture or position, unsafe clothing, and defective safeguards. Other precise and effective intervention can be developed based on the identified groups of accident causes associated with each source of injury., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The current study applied Structural Equation Modelling to analyse the relationship among pitch, loudness, tempo and timbre and their relationship with perceived sound quality. Twenty-eight auditory signals of horn, indicator, door open warning and parking sensor were collected from 11 car brands. Twenty-one experienced drivers were recruited to evaluate all sound signals with 11 semantic differential scales. The results indicate that for the continuous sounds, pitch, loudness and timbre each had a direct impact on the perceived quality. Besides the direct impacts, pitch also had an impact on loudness perception. For the intermittent sounds, tempo and timbre each had a direct impact on the perceived quality. These results can help to identify the psychoacoustic attributes affecting the consumers' quality perception and help to design preferable sounds for vehicles. In the end, a design guideline is proposed for the development of auditory signals that adopts the current study's research findings as well as those of other relevant research. Practitioner Summary: This study applied Structural Equation Modelling to analyse the relationship among pitch, loudness, tempo and timbre and their relationship with perceived sound quality. The result can help to identify psychoacoustic attributes affecting the consumers' quality perception and help to design preferable sounds for vehicles.

Twenty-one experienced drivers were recruited for the evaluation of sounds of four functions (horn, indicator, door open warning, and parking sensor) made by 11 car brand names. Each participant was required to evaluate all of the above sound signals by a pair-comparison test. After the comparison test, each participant was shown his/her pair-comparison result and was asked to comment on their preference and appropriateness of a sound. The physical properties and interview data were compared and summarized to propose design recommendations. Our results indicate that complex tones and a fundamental frequency around 450 Hz were most preferred for horns while for indicators the preferred sounds had a higher dominant frequency [corrected].To reduce monotony, the indicators with double clicks and an OFF time interval of between 330 and 400 ms between two clicks were most preferred. Regarding door warning sounds, the waveform starting with a higher intensity then fading towards zero intensity is most preferred while for parking sensors, sounds beginning with a longer OFF time (about 500 ms) and having 3 or 4 distinctive tempo variations were most preferred. The relationship between pleasurability and pitch, loudness, and the tempo of sound signals basically followed an inverted-U function. Sound designers should avoid using very extreme parameter values when generating sound for a given function., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The current study applied a fault tree analysis to represent the causal relationships among events and causes that contributed to fatal falls in the construction industry. Four hundred and eleven work-related fatalities in the Taiwanese construction industry were analyzed in terms of age, gender, experience, falling site, falling height, company size, and the causes for each fatality. Given that most fatal accidents involve multiple events, the current study coded up to a maximum of three causes for each fall fatality. After the Boolean algebra and minimal cut set analyses, accident causes associated with each falling site can be presented as a fault tree to provide an overview of the basic causes, which could trigger fall fatalities in the construction industry. Graphical icons were designed for each falling site along with the associated accident causes to illustrate the fault tree in a graphical manner. A graphical fault tree can improve inter-disciplinary discussion of risk management and the communication of accident causation to first line supervisors., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The current research classified 82 vehicle icons into seven categories (image-related, concept-related, semi-abstract, arbitrary, abbreviation, word, and combined) for their matching accuracy, matching sequence, and matching time. These data can be compared and used as a framework for future icon development. Forty participants, all with a university degree, took part in this experiment. Half of the participants had intensive driving experience, while the other half never driven a car. The results indicated that on average, word icons had a significantly greater matching accuracy than the other icon formats; ranging from 4.7 to 20.8% difference. Regarding the matching sequence, participants matched image-related icons before other icon formats. Arbitrary and combined icons took significantly longer to match than other icon formats by 1.4-6.2 s. Based on the high matching accuracy (86.3%) and high ratings on subjective design features, word format can be used for functions describable using simple English for users with English reading ability. Confusion matrices showed that 63.2% of the misunderstandings were caused by similarity in format or function., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd and The Ergonomics Society. All rights reserved.)

Handgrip strength is essential in manual operations and activities of daily life, but the influence of forearm/hand skin temperature on estimation of handgrip strength is not well documented. Therefore, the present study intended to investigate the effect of local cooling of the forearm/hand on estimation of handgrip strength at various target force levels (TFLs, in percentage of MVC) for both genders. A cold pressor test was used to lower and maintain the hand skin temperature at 14°C for comparison with the uncooled condition. A total of 10 male and 10 female participants were recruited. The results indicated that females had greater absolute estimation deviations. In addition, both genders had greater absolute deviations in the middle range of TFLs. Cooling caused an underestimation of grip strength. Furthermore, a power function is recommended for establishing the relationship between actual and estimated handgrip force. Statement of relevance: Manipulation with grip strength is essential in daily life and the workplace, so it is important to understand the influence of lowering the forearm/hand skin temperature on grip-strength estimation. Females and the middle range of TFL had greater deviations. Cooling the forearm/hand tended to cause underestimation, and a power function is recommended for establishing the relationship between actual and estimated handgrip force. Practitioner Summary: It is important to understand the effect of lowering the forearm/hand skin temperature on grip-strength estimation. A cold pressor was used to cool the hand. The cooling caused underestimation, and a power function is recommended for establishing the relationship between actual and estimated handgrip force., Statement of Relevance: Manipulation with grip strength is essential in daily life and the workplace, so it is important to understand the influence of lowering the forearm/hand skin temperature on grip-strength estimation. Females and the middle range of TFL had greater deviations. Cooling the forearm/hand tended to cause underestimation, and a power function is recommended for establishing the relationship between actual and estimated handgrip force., Practitioner Summary: It is important to understand the effect of lowering the forearm/hand skin temperature on grip-strength estimation. A cold pressor was used to cool the hand. The cooling caused underestimation, and a power function is recommended for establishing the relationship between actual and estimated handgrip force

Many disabled individuals lack extensive knowledge about assistive technology, which could help them use computers. In 1997, Denis Anson developed a decision tree of 49 evaluative questions designed to evaluate the functional capabilities of the disabled user and choose an appropriate combination of assistive devices, from a selection of 26, that enable the individual to use a computer. In general, occupational therapists guide the disabled users through this process. They often have to go over repetitive questions in order to find an appropriate device. A disabled user may require an alphanumeric entry device, a pointing device, an output device, a performance enhancement device, or some combination of these. Therefore, the current research eliminates redundant questions and divides Anson's decision tree into multiple independent subtrees to meet the actual demand of computer users with disabilities. The modified decision tree was tested by six disabled users to prove it can determine a complete set of assistive devices with a smaller number of evaluative questions. The means to insert new categories of computer-related assistive devices was included to ensure the decision tree can be expanded and updated. The current decision tree can help the disabled users and assistive technology practitioners to find appropriate computer-related assistive devices that meet with clients' individual needs in an efficient manner.

The current study reanalyzed 250 electrical fatalities in the construction industry from 1996 to 2002 into seven patterns based on source of electricity (power line, energized equipment, improperly installed or damaged equipment), direct contact or indirect contact through some source of injury (boom vehicle, metal bar or pipe, and other conductive material). Each fatality was coded in terms of age, company size, experience, performing tasks, source of injury, accident cause and hazard pattern. The Chi-square Automatic Interaction Detector (CHAID) was applied to the coded data of the fatal electrocution to find a subset of predictors that might derive meaningful classifications or accidents scenarios. A series of Flow Diagrams was constructed based on CHAID result to illustrate the flow of electricity travelling from electrical source to human body. Each of the flow diagrams can be directly linked with feasible prevention strategies by cutting the flow of electricity.

Objective: This article examines the changes in skin temperature (finger, hand, forearm), manual performance (hand dexterity and strength), and forearm surface electromyograph (EMG) through 40-min, 11 degrees C water cooling followed by 15-min, 34 degrees C water rewarming; additionally, it explores the relationship between dexterity and the factors of skin temperature, EMG, and ambient condition., Background: Hand exposure in cold conditions is unavoidable and significantly affects manual performance., Method: Two tasks requiring gross and fine dexterity were designed, namely, nut loosening and pin insertion, respectively. The nested-factorial design includes factors of gender, participant (nested within gender), immersion duration, muscle type (for EMG), and location (for skin temperature). The responses are changes in dexterity, skin temperature, normalized amplitude of EMG, and grip strength. Finally, factor analysis and stepwise regression are used to explore factors affecting hand and finger dexterity., Results: Dexterity, EMG, and skin temperature fell with prolonged cooling, but the EMG of the flexor digitorum superficialis remained almost unchanged during the nut loosening task. All responses but the forearm skin temperature recovered to the baseline level at the end of rewarming. The three factors extracted by factor analysis are termed skin temperature, ambient condition, and EMG. They explain approximately two thirds of the variation of the linear models for both dexterities, and the factor of skin temperature is the most influential., Conclusion: Sustained cooling and warming significantly decreases and increases finger, hand, and forearm skin temperature. Dexterity, strength, and EMG are positively correlated to skin temperature. Therefore, keeping the finger, hand, and forearm warm is important to maintaining hand performance., Application: The findings could be helpful to building safety guidelines for working in cold environments.

This study evaluated the potential effectiveness of screen filters in relieving visual fatigue. Critical flicker frequency (CFF), accommodation power, visual acuity, and subjective rating of visual fatigue were evaluated at four different stages: without screen filter, screen filter use of 2.5 mo., 5 mo., and 12 mo. For each stage, all measurements were taken before and after an 8-hr. workday. Analysis of variance was performed to test whether the screen filter use or measurement time had a significant effect on any of the visual fatigue measurements. The results indicated visual acuity was significantly improved after the use of a screen filter, while after the screen filter was installed, the CFF reading showed visual fatigue was more pronounced. Significant improvement in subjective ratings of double vision on screen was found after the screen filter use of 2.5 mo., but improvements disappeared after continuous use at 5 mo. A Hawthorne effect could have contributed to the short-term relief in visual fatigue and inconsistent findings in other visual performance measurements. Sorting out frequently used questions into a few definable areas and data sets might reduce the screen viewing time and visual fatigue more effectively.

The purpose of this study was to examine altered pressure garments requested by burn patients, in Taiwan. Three hundred forty-two pressure garments needing alterations were collected from 127 burn patients at the Sunshine Foundation Organization, an nonprofit organization for burn patients, between March and September 2007, to identify the major defects found in these pressure garments and their causes. Causes of required alterations were classified according to a hierarchical coding scheme focusing on poor fit, discomfort, component part, fabric and sewing, and cosmetics to identify systematic problems for each garment type. The result of our analysis indicated that the majority of the pressure garment alterations were related to poor fit in circumferential and longitudinal dimensions of the various body parts, incorrect position and size of openings for eyes, nose, ears, and mouth, or inappropriate length or position of zippers. Information derived from this causal analysis can be applied in helping to reduce the recurrence of alterations in pressure garment, thus improving the quality and effectiveness of pressure therapy.

The study derived seven descriptors from the pixel matrices of both the uppercase and lowercase forms of the 26 letters in the English alphabet in the regular and italic versions of the most commonly used font, Times New Roman. A factor analysis of the seven descriptors showed that a two-factor solution of letter width and height explained 76.6% of the variance. Legibility threshold of the 26 letters in the regular and italic Times Roman font and in two-case forms were collected to specify effects of letter width and height. 20 university students, 10 women and 10 men, with a mean age of 24.1 yr. (SD = 1.6) participated. They identified letters displayed initially on a PC screen at a minimum font size and enlarged gradually until the participant correctly recognized the letter. Analysis showed letters of greater width or height were more legible than those of smaller width or height. Given an oblique effect, letters in the italic Times Roman font had significantly greater width but were less legible than those in the regular font.

Potential ergonomic hazards for 27 disabled call center agents engaged in computer-telephone interactive tasks were evaluated for possible associations between the task behaviors and work-related disorders. Data included task description, 300 samples of performance, a questionnaire on workstation design, body-part discomfort rating, perceived stress, potential job stressors, and direct measurement of environmental factors. Analysis indicated agents were frequently exposed to prolonged static sitting and repetitive movements, together with unsupported back and flexed neck, causing musculoskeletal discomforts. Visual fatigue (85.2% of agents), discomfort of ears (66.7%), and musculoskeletal discomforts (59.3%) were the most pronounced and prevalent complaints after prolonged working. 17 of 27 agents described job pressure as high or very high, and dealing with difficult customers and trying to fulfill the customers' needs within the time standard were main stressors. Further work on surrounding noise, earphone use, possible hearing loss of experienced agents, training programs, feasible solutions for visual fatigue, musculoskeletal symptoms, and psychosocial stress should be conducted.

Government data on 1,039 job titles in Taiwan were analyzed to assess possible relationships between job attributes and compensation. For each job title, 79 specific variables in six major classes (required education and experience, aptitude, interest, work temperament, physical demands, task environment) were coded to derive the statistical predictors of wage for managers, professionals, technical, clerical, service, farm, craft, operatives, and other workers. Of the 79 variables, only 23 significantly related to pay rate were subjected to a factor and multiple regression analysis for predicting monthly wages. Given the heterogeneous nature of collected job titles, a 4-factor solution (occupational knowledge and skills, human relations skills, work schedule hardships, physical hardships) explaining 43.8% of the total variance but predicting only 23.7% of the monthly pay rate was derived. On the other hand, multiple regression with 9 job analysis items (required education, professional training, professional certificate, professional experience, coordinating, leadership and directing, demand on hearing, proportion of shift working indoors, outdoors and others, rotating shift) better predicted pay and explained 32.5% of the variance. A direct comparison of factors and subfactors of job evaluation plans indicated mental effort and responsibility (accountability) had not been measured with the current job analysis data. Cross-validation of job evaluation factors and ratings with the wage rates is required to calibrate both.

Introduction: Massage practitioners are at high risk for work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs). We investigated the prevalence and risk factors., Methods: We randomly selected 161 visually impaired practitioners. Demographics, musculoskeletal symptoms, and working postures were analyzed with multivariate logistic regression., Results: Results indicated that about 71.4% had at least one WMSD in 12 months. Prevalence rates were finger or thumb, 50.3%; shoulder, 31.7%; wrist, 28.6%; neck, 25.5%; arm or elbow, 23.6%; forearm, 20.5%; and back, 19.3%. Working duration >20 years had an adjusted odds ratio (OR) for finger or thumb 4.0-4.5 with 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.5-13.8, client contact >4 h/day (adjusted OR for finger = 3.2, 95% CI=1.3-8.1), and < or =7-kg pulp-pinch strength (adjusted OR for upper extremity = 2.9-3.2, 95% CI=1.2-8.3). Adjusted ORs for lower-back symptoms were 3.1 (95% CI=1.3-7.8) and 3.6 (95% CI=1.4-9.6), respectively, for lack of neutral neck posture and for inappropriate working-table height., Conclusion: WMSDs were prevalent among massage practitioners.

In 2000, the accident rate for escalator riding was about 0.815 accidents per million passenger trips through Taipei Metro Rapid Transit (MRT) heavy capacity stations. In order to reduce the probability and severity of escalator riding accidents and enhance the safety of passengers, the Drury and Brill model [Drury, C.G., Brill, M., 1983. Human factors in consumer product accident investigation. Hum. Factors 25 (3), 329-342] for in-depth investigation was adopted to analyze the 194 escalator riding accidents in terms of victim, task, product and environment. Prevention measures have been developed based on the major causes of accidents and other related contributing factors. The results from the analysis indicated that the majority of the escalator riding accidents was caused by passengers' carrying out other tasks (38 cases, including carrying luggage 24 cases, looking after accompany persons 9 cases, and 5 others), loss of balance (26 cases, 13.4%), not holding the handrail (20 cases, 10.3%), unhealthy passengers (18 cases, 9.3%), followed by people struck by other passenger (16 cases, 8.2%). For female passengers aged 15-64 years, their rushing for trains accidents could have been prevented by wearing safer footwear or by appropriate signing being provided indicating the location and traveling direction of escalators. Female passengers aged 65 years and above whose accidents were caused by loss of balance, should be encouraged to take the elevator instead. To prevent entrapment injuries, following a stricter design code can be most effective. Further in-depth accident investigation is suggested to cover the activity of the victim prior to the accident, any involved product, the location of the accident on the escalator, any medical treatment, what went wrong, opinion of the respondent on the causes of the accident, and personal characteristics of the passengers. Also, management must trade off productivity and safety appropriately to prevent "Organizational Accidents".

Contributing factors to 621 occupational fatal falls have been identified with respect to the victim's individual factors, the fall site, company size, and cause of fall. Individual factors included age, gender, experience, and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Accident scenarios were derived from accident reports. Significant linkages were found between causes for the falls and accident events. Falls from scaffold staging were associated with a lack of complying scaffolds and bodily action. Falls through existing floor openings were associated with unguarded openings, inappropriate protections, or the removal of protections. Falls from building girders or other structural steel were associated with bodily actions and improper use of PPE. Falls from roof edges were associated with bodily actions and being pulled down by a hoist, object or tool. Falls through roof surfaces were associated with lack of complying scaffolds. Falls from ladders were associated with overexertion and unusual control and the use of unsafe ladders and tools. Falls down stairs or steps were associated with unguarded openings. Falls while jumping to a lower floor and falls through existing roof openings were associated with poor work practices. Primary and secondary prevention measures can be used to prevent falls or to mitigate the consequences of falls and are suggested for each type of accident. Primary prevention measures would include fixed barriers, such as handrails, guardrails, surface opening protections (hole coverings), crawling boards/planks, and strong roofing materials. Secondary protection measures would include travel restraint systems (safety belt), fall arrest systems (safety harness), and fall containment systems (safety nets).

The current study derived seven descriptors from the pixel matrix of 5401 Chinese characters in the commonly used Ming, Kai, Li, and Hei fonts. A factor analysis was used to reduce the number of descriptors for a validation experiment. The three-factor solution (number of strokes, character height, and character width) explaining 89.54% of the variance was derived from 5401 characters in four fonts. A 4 x 2 x 2 x 2 factorial experiment using fonts, number of strokes, character height, and character width as the independent variables was conducted to evaluate the impact of each critical factor on the legibility of Chinese characters. Each tested character was chosen from the 500 most commonly used characters to minimize the effect of familiarity and ensure that all participants could recognize the character if it was legible. The 16 university students who participated in the experiment were asked to identify a Chinese character initially displayed on a PC screen at its minimum size and enlarged gradually until the participant could recognize it. The analysis of variance suggests that all the main effects of font, number of strokes, character height, and character width are significant. The legibility thresholds of the four type styles from the most to the least legible are in the Hei, Ming, Kai, and Li sequence. Number of strokes is the only significant factor in predicting the legibility threshold for each individual font. However, if predicting the legibility threshold across four fonts, character height is the other significant factor with about the same predictive power as number of strokes. The legible threshold is increased by the number of strokes and decreased by the character height and character width.