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Purpose: It is well-known that obesity has an adverse impact on breast cancer prognosis; nonetheless, the prognostic role of abdominal obesity, especially its post-diagnosis change, has been understudied. This study aims to examine the prospective associations of general and abdominal obesity and their post-diagnosis changes with all-cause mortality, breast cancer-specific mortality, and breast cancer recurrence in Chinese breast cancer patients., Methods: From 2011 to 2014, 1460 Chinese breast cancer patients were recruited and followed up at 18, 36, and 60 months after diagnosis. Body mass index (BMI), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and their changes between baseline and 18-month follow-up were derived. Clinical records on diagnosis, treatment, and death were also obtained. In total, 1309 women who completed the 18-month follow-up were included for Cox regression analyses, stratified by follow-up periods., Results: Within 18-48 months post-diagnosis, substantial WHR loss (5% or above) had reduced risk of all-cause (HR = 0.21 [95% CI 0.06-0.75]) and breast cancer-specific mortality (0.21 [0.06-0.77]) relative to stable WHR; whereas after 48 months post-diagnosis, substantial WHR gain showed elevated risks of all-cause mortality (2.67 [1.22-5.85])). Higher baseline WHR was also associated with both mortality outcomes. Nonetheless, no such associations were observed for BMI measures. Also, the effects of obesity measures on breast recurrence were less apparent., Conclusion: Abdominal obesity, rather than general obesity, was linked to worse survival in Chinese breast cancer patients. Prevention on abdominal obesity and waist gain following breast cancer diagnosis may have a beneficial effect on longer-term survival over and above conventional weight management. Waist assessment and abdominal obesity control should therefore be incorporated as a vital component of the evaluation and interventions of breast cancer prognosis., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

Diabetes among working population brings to society concerns on productivity and social welfare cost, in addition to healthcare burden. While lower socio-economic status has been recognised as a risk factor of diabetes; occupation, compared with other socio-economic status indicators (e.g., education and income), has received less attention. There is some evidence from studies conducted in Europe that occupation is associated with diabetes risk, but less is known in Asia, which has different organisational cultures and management styles from the West. This study examines the association between occupation and diabetes risk in a developed Asian setting, which is experiencing an increasing number of young onset of diabetes and aging working population at the same time. This is a cross-sectional study of working population aged up to 65 with data from a population-based survey collecting demographic, socio-economic, behavioural and metabolic data from Hong Kong residents, through both self-administered questionnaires and clinical health examinations (1,429 participants). Non-skilled occupation was found to be an independent risk factor for diabetes, with an odds ratio (OR) of 3.38 (p < 0.001) and adjusted OR of 2.59 (p = 0.022) after adjusting for demographic, behavioural and metabolic risk factors. Older age (adjusted OR = 1.08, p < 0.001), higher body mass index (adjusted OR = 1.23, p < 0.001) and having hypertriglyceridemia (adjusted OR = 1.93, p = 0.033) were also independently associated with diabetes. Non-skilled workers were disproportionately affected by diabetes with the highest age-standardized prevalence (6.3%) among all occupation groups (4.9%-5.0%). This study provides evidence that non-skilled occupation is an independent diabetes risk factor in a developed Asian setting. Health education on improving lifestyle practices and diabetes screening should prioritise non-skilled workers, in particular through company-based and sector-based diabetes screening programmes. Diabetes health service should respond to the special needs of non-skilled workers, including service at non-office hour and practical health advice in light of their work setting., (© 2021 The Authors. Health and Social Care in the Community published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Previous research has suggested an association between depression and subsequent acute stroke incidence, but few studies have examined any effect modification by sociodemographic factors. In addition, no studies have investigated this association among primary care recipients with hypertension., Methods: We examined the anonymized records of all public general outpatient visits by patients aged 45+ during January 2007-December 2010 in Hong Kong to extract primary care patients with hypertension for analysis. We took the last consultation date as the baseline and followed them up for 4 years (until 2011-2014) to observe any subsequent acute hospitalization due to stroke. Mixed-effects Cox models (random intercept across 74 included clinics) were implemented to examine the association between depression (ICPC diagnosis or anti-depressant prescription) at baseline and the hazard of acute stroke (ICD-9: 430-437.9). Effect modification by age, sex, and recipient status of social security assistance was examined in extended models with respective interaction terms specified., Results: In total, 396 858 eligible patients were included, with 9099 (2.3%) having depression, and 10 851 (2.7%) eventually hospitalized for stroke. From the adjusted analysis, baseline depression was associated with a 17% increased hazard of acute stroke hospitalization [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.03-1.32]. This association was suggested to be even stronger among men than among women (hazard ratio = 1.29, 95% CI 1.00-1.67)., Conclusion: Depression is more strongly associated with acute stroke incidence among male than female primary care patients with hypertension. More integrated services are warranted to address their needs.

Although coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreaks have been relatively well controlled in Hong Kong, containment remains challenging among socioeconomically disadvantaged persons. They are at higher risk for widespread COVID-19 transmission through sizable clustering, probably because of exposure to social settings in which existing mitigation policies had differential socioeconomic effects.

Background: Research comparing sex differences in the effects of antipsychotic medications on acute ischemic heart disease (IHD) is limited and the findings ambiguous. This study aimed to investigate these associations within a primary care setting., Methods: Hong Kong public general outpatient electronic records of patients aged 45+ during 2007-2010 were extracted, with the last consultation date as the baseline for a 4-year follow-up period to observe acute IHD hospitalizations (2011-2014). Antipsychotic use was defined as any prescription over the previous 12 months from a list of 16 antipsychotics, while acute IHD was defined by ICD-9: 410.00-411.89. Both sex-specific and sex-combined (both sexes) mixed-effects Cox models (random intercept across 74 clinics) were implemented to examine the association and test the interaction between antipsychotics and sex., Results: Among 1,043,236 included patients, 17,780 (1.7%) were prescribed antipsychotics, and 8342 (0.8%) developed IHD. In sex-specific analyses, antipsychotic prescription was associated with a 32% increased hazard rate of acute IHD among women (95% CI 1.05-1.67) but not among men. A likelihood ratio test comparing sex-combined models with and without the interaction between antipsychotic use and sex suggested significant interaction (χ 2  = 4.72, P = 0.030). The association between antipsychotic use and IHD among women attenuated and became non-significant when haloperidol was omitted from the operationalization of antipsychotic use (HR = 1.23, 95% CI 0.95-1.60)., Conclusion: Our results suggest that antipsychotic prescription is moderately associated with an increased risk of acute IHD among women in primary care and this relationship may be explained by specific antipsychotics. Further research should observe and capture the potential intermediary mechanisms and the dose-response relationship of this association to provide more rigorous evidence to establish causality and inform clinical practices.

Background: The life-course perspective on socioeconomic inequality in health is a burgeoning field of research. Nonetheless, the three classic life-course models (i.e. sensitive period, cumulative risk and social mobility models) have rarely been simultaneously applied to studies on obesity. Therefore, this study examined the associations of socioeconomic positions (SEPs) across life stages and their associated life-course models with both general and abdominal obesity., Methods: Face-to-face interviews were conducted among 1077 community-dwelling adults aged 50 or above during 2014-15 in Hong Kong. Experiences of poverty, educational attainment and deprivation of necessities represented respondents' SEP in childhood, early adulthood and late adulthood, respectively. General and abdominal obesity were defined as body mass index ≥25 kg m-2 and waist-to-height ratio >0.5. Multivariable modified Poisson regression with a robust error variance was performed., Results: Respondents with low childhood SEP tended to have reduced risk of general obesity [relative risk (RR) = 0.85; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.72-1.00], whereas those with low childhood SEP and low late-adulthood SEP tended to have increased risk of abdominal obesity (RR = 1.10; 95% CI = 1.00-1.21 and RR = 1.14; 95% CI = 1.03-1.26, respectively). Cumulative socioeconomic disadvantages showed a dose-response relationship with abdominal obesity. Also, those with upward socioeconomic mobility had lower risk of abdominal obesity, whereas those with downward socioeconomic mobility had greater risk., Conclusions: Low SEP, especially in childhood, exerted contrasting effects on general and abdominal obesity among older Hong Kong Chinese adults. The three life-course models operated simultaneously in determining the risk of abdominal obesity, while support for cumulative risk and social mobility models was weak in general obesity., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Public Health Association. All rights reserved.)

Objective: This study aimed to examine the prospective associations of general and abdominal obesity patterns with carotid plaque development among early postmenopausal Chinese women., Methods: A total of 518 postmenopausal women aged 50 to 64 years were recruited between 2002 and 2004 and were followed up at 3 years and 5 years. Carotid plaque was measured using B-mode ultrasonography, whereas general and abdominal obesity were defined as BMI ≥ 25 kg/m 2 and waist-hip ratio ≥ 0.85, respectively. Sociodemographic, lifestyle, mental health, disease history, and clinical measurements were also assessed for confounding control. Multivariable binary logistic regression analyses on plaque development at 5 years were performed among 322 women with no carotid plaque at baseline., Results: Over the 5-year follow-up period, 70 women (21.7%) developed carotid plaque. Baseline abdominal obesity independently predicted plaque development (adjusted odds ratio = 2.30; 95% CI: 1.15-4.60), but general obesity did not. Women with normal-weight abdominal obesity were more than twice as likely to develop carotid plaque (adjusted odds ratio = 2.43; 95% CI: 1.02-5.75) compared with women with no obesity, with their risk comparable to women with both general and abdominal obesity., Conclusions: Abdominal obesity was a critical predictor of subclinical carotid plaque development among early postmenopausal Chinese women. Policy makers should recognize the need to identify high-risk midlife women with normal-weight abdominal obesity in public health and clinical practice., (© 2020 The Obesity Society.)

Objective: Menopausal changes are linked to increase in body fat mass and central fat distribution; nonetheless, the impact of socioeconomic position on such changes has rarely been examined. This cohort study assessed the temporal associations of socioeconomic position with changes in body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) among early postmenopausal women., Methods: Between 2002 and 2004, 518 Hong Kong Chinese women aged 50 to 64 and within 10 years since menopause were recruited and followed up at 3 and 5 years. Weight, height, and waist and hip circumferences were measured by trained interviewers at baseline and follow-up interviews. Socioeconomic positions including educational attainment, economic activity status and household income level, and other baseline demographic characteristics, lifestyle behaviors, and mental health status were collected based on a structured questionnaire. In total, 287 and 267 women with no general and abdominal obesity, respectively, at baseline were included in multiple regression analyses., Results: Mean intrapersonal increases in BMI and WHR between baseline and 5-year interview were 0.46 kg/m and 2.80%, respectively. Women with no secondary education were 75% more likely to have a greater than-mean WHR increase than their more educated counterparts (P = 0.039). Also, having no secondary education (P = 0.041) and being a homemaker (P = 0.034) had accelerated surge in WHR. Nonetheless, baseline socioeconomic positions were not significantly associated with BMI changes., Conclusions: Socioeconomic patterning was observed for the progression of WHR among nonobese Chinese women soon after menopause. Early postmenopausal stage may be a critical window for prevention of abdominal obesity among women with a lower educational attainment.

Gender differences in the trend of educational inequality in hypertension have been observed especially in the Asian populations, indicating the increasing importance of education as a social determinant of hypertension among women. This study examined the gender-specific trends of educational inequality in physician-diagnosed hypertension in Hong Kong between 1999 and 2014. Based on a series of eight government-led territory-wide household surveys conducted between 1999 and 2014, 97,481 community-dwelling Hong Kong Chinese adults aged 45 or above were analysed. The extent and trend of gender-specific educational inequality in self-reported physician-diagnosed hypertension were estimated by regression-based Relative Index of Inequality and age-standardised Slope Index of Inequality. Over the study period, age-standardised prevalence of self-reported hypertension increased in both genders, with the greatest prevalence among the least educated women. Educational inequalities in hypertension significantly widened in female from 1999 to 2009 and persisted thereafter; nonetheless, the respective inequality was negligible in male. Further adjustment for household income did not attenuate the observed inequality. To conclude, a widened and then persistent discrepancy in hypertension across education levels was observed among women, but not among men, in Hong Kong. The gender perspective should be carefully considered when designing hypertension prevention strategies and related health policies.

Background: Previous research has suggested a differential short-term effect of multimorbidity on hospitalization by age, with younger groups affected more. This study compares the nine-year hospitalization pattern by age and multimorbidity status in a retrospective cohort of discharged in-patients, who represent a high-need portion of the population., Methods: We examined routine clinical records of all patients aged 45+ years with chronic conditions discharged from public general hospitals in 2005 in Hong Kong. Patterns of annual frequencies of hospital admissions and number of hospitalized days over nine years (2005-2014) were compared by multimorbidity status (1, 2, 3+ conditions) and age group (45-64, 65-74, 75+)., Results: Among 121,188 included patients, 33.9% had 2+ conditions and 12.3% had 3+. Hospitalization patterns varied by age and multimorbidity status. For those having only 1 condition, annual number of admissions was similar by age, but older patients had more hospitalized days (4.40 days per person-year for the 45-64 group versus 10.29 for the 75+ group in the 5th year). For those with 3+ conditions, younger patients had more admissions (4.39 admissions per person-year for the 45-64 group versus 1.87 for the 75+ group in the 5th year) but similar number of hospitalized days with older patients. Interaction analysis showed effect of multimorbidity on hospitalization was stronger in younger groups (P < 0.05)., Conclusion: Middle-aged discharged in-patients with multimorbidity are admitted more often than their older counterparts and have similar total hospitalized days per year. Further research is needed to investigate chronic care needs of younger people with multimorbidity., (Copyright © 2018 European Federation of Internal Medicine. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Prevalence of multimorbidity has been increasing worldwide. While population ageing undoubtedly contributes, secular trends have seldom been decomposed into age, period and cohort effects to investigate intergenerational differences. This study examines the birth cohort effect on morbidity burden and multimorbidity in Hong Kong community., Design: Sex-specific age-period-cohort analysis with repeated cross-sectional surveys., Setting: A territory-wide population survey database., Participants: 69 636 adults aged 35 or above who participated in the surveys in 1999, 2001, 2005 or 2008., Main Outcome Measures: Morbidity burden was operationalised as number of chronic conditions from a list of 14, while multimorbidity was defined as a dichotomous status of whether participants had two or more conditions., Results: For both sexes, there was an upward inflection (positive change) of risk of increased morbidity burden starting from cohort 1955-1959. For men born after 1945-1954, there was a trend of lower risk (relative risk=0.63, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.80 for 1950-1954 vs 1935-1939) which continued through subsequent cohorts but with no further declines. In women, there had been a gradual increase of risk, although only significant for cohort 1970-1974 (relative risk=1.90, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.34 vs 1935-1939). Similar results were found for dichotomous multimorbidity status., Conclusions: The trend of lower risk starting from men born in 1945-1954 may be due to a persistent decline in smoking rates since the 1980s. On the other hand, the childhood obesity epidemic starting from the late 1950s coincided with the observed upward inflection of risk for both sexes, that is, notably more drastic increase of risk in women and the levelling-off of the decline of risk in men. These findings highlight that the cohort effects on morbidity burden and multimorbidity may be sex-specific and contextual. By examining such effects in different world populations, localised sex-specific and generation-specific risk factors can be identified to inform policy-making., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2018. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Purpose: Hong Kong has been one of the fastest growing postwar economies with substantial decline in mortality risks during the past decades. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether there is a socioeconomic disparity in the trends of mortality risks across generations., Methods: We conducted a series of sex-specific age-period-cohort analyses by neighborhood-level socioeconomic status (SES) using mortality data from 1976 to 2010 to examine the socioeconomic disparity of cohort effects. Outcomes included all-cause mortality and mortality from ischemic heart disease, other cardiovascular diseases (CVD), lung cancer, other cancers, respiratory diseases (RD), other medical causes, and external causes., Results: Age-standardized mortality rates declined in both sexes, with generally higher rates observed in those of lower SES. Socioeconomic disparity in the risks of all mortality outcomes emerged and widened starting from cohorts born around the 1930s-1940s. These results suggested that mortality risks associated with lower SES did not decline across generations as much as those associated with higher SES., Conclusions: The share of health benefits brought by economic growth was notably unequal by SES with greater benefits for those of higher SES. More attention should be paid to postwar baby boomers of lower SES., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Aging and menopausal changes contribute to increased cardiovascular risks in postmenopausal women. This study examined the associations of total and specific fruit and vegetable consumption with low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) status, a critical cardiovascular risk factor, in early postmenopausal Chinese women., Methods: A total of 508 postmenopausal Hong Kong Chinese women aged 50 to 64 years were recruited into a cohort study on cardiovascular risks. Sociodemographic characteristics, medical conditions, use of medications, and lifestyle factors were obtained via structured interviews. Dietary intake was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire. LDL-C and total cholesterol concentrations were determined using biochemical enzymatic techniques and categorized according to the Adult Treatment Panel III classification., Results: Ordinal logistic regression analysis showed that women with total fruit and vegetable intake in the highest quartile were 33% less likely (odds ratio [OR] = 0.67; 95% CI, 0.44-1.03) to have a worse LDL-C status than those with lower intake after adjustments. The intakes of total vegetables (OR = 0.63; 95% CI, 0.41-0.96) and vegetable subgroups in the highest quartiles, including darkgreen leafy vegetables (OR = 0.60; 95% CI, 0.41-0.89) and corn and tubers (OR = 0.62; 95% CI, 0.40-0.96), were significantly inversely associated with LDL-C status. Further adjustment for total cholesterol did not attenuate the associations., Conclusions: A daily consumption of vegetables equivalent to about four servings or more might be beneficial for LDL-C control in early Chinese postmenopausal women. In particular, darkgreen leafy vegetables, as well as corn and tubers, deserve greater advocacy for their ability to improve lipid profiles and hence cardiovascular health.