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Background: There is limited research on brain lesions in children with cerebral visual impairment (CVI) of heterogeneous etiologies and according to associated subtyping and vision dysfunctions. This study was part of a larger project establishing data-driven subtypes of childhood CVI according to visual dysfunctions. Currently there is no consensus in relation to assessment, diagnosis and classification of CVI and more information about brain lesions may be of potential diagnostic value. Aim: This study aimed to investigate overall patterns of brain lesions and associations with level of visual dysfunction and to compare the patterns between the classification subgroups in children with CVI. Methods: School-aged children with CVI received ophthalmological and neuro-psychological/developmental assessments to establish CVI-related subtyping. Other pediatric information was collected from medical records. MRI scans were coded according to a semi-quantitative template including brain regions (right hemisphere, left hemisphere, visual pathways) and summed for total scores. Non-parametric analyses were conducted. Results: 28 children had clinical brain MRI scans available [44% of total sample, Group A (lower severity of visual dysfunctions) n = 16, Group B (higher severity) n = 12]. Total brain scores ranged between 0 and 18 (Group A mdn = 7, IQR = 0.8-10.0, Group B mdn = 10, IQR = 6.5-11.8) and were widespread across regions. 71 per cent had post-geniculate visual pathway damage. The median total brain and hemisphere scores of Group B were higher than subgroup A but differences did not reach statistical significance. No statistically significant associations were found between brain scores and vision variables (acuity, contrast sensitivity). Conclusion: This study found a spread of lesions across all regions on the brain scans in children with congenital CVI. The majority had damage in the postgeniculate visual pathways and visual cortex region suggesting this is an area of interest and potentially informative for diagnosis. However the subtyping classification did not show differences in number or region of lesions though the trend was higher toward Group B. This study confirms the complex diffuse and variable nature of brain lesions in children with congenital CVI, many of whom have other neurological impairments., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Sakki, Dale, Mankad, Sargent, Talenti and Bowman.)

Background: This study investigated mother-infant interactions, including maternal maintaining of infant attentional focus and sensitivity, with infants with congenital severe and profound visual impairment (VI) and the association with developmental trajectories from one to three years., Method: Fifty-five infants and mothers were video-recorded playing together with a standard set of toys at Time 1 (T1) mean age 12.95 months (8.13-17.05 months). Maintain was categorized as the mother following and maintaining the child's focus, and Sensitivity, the mother's responsiveness and contingency to infant behaviour. Vision level was measured using the Near Detection Scale. Cognition and language were measured at T1, 12 months later (T2) and 24 months later (T3) using the Reynell-Zinkin Scales., Results: Cross-sectional analyses showed that mothers of infants with severe VI (basic form vision) produced higher rates of Maintain compared to those with children with profound VI (light perception at best). Linear mixed-effects models examining developmental progression from T1 to T3 (controlling for vision level) showed an average increase of 5 DQ points (CI 95%: 1.03-9.08) in verbal comprehension for higher Sensitivity. No significant findings were found for Maintain., Conclusions: The findings suggest that mother-infant interactions (maternal Maintain) are associated with level of vision at infancy, but only maternal Sensitivity has a long-term positive association with advances in verbal comprehension from infancy to about three years. They highlight the need for incorporating strategies related to parent-infant interactions, including increased sensitivity, into early intervention for children with visual impairment., (© 2020 The Authors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.)

Aim: To investigate detection vision development in infants and toddlers with congenital disorders of the peripheral visual system (CDPVS) and severe to profound visual impairment (SVI/PVI)., Method: This was a longitudinal observational investigation of a cohort of infants with CDPVS (entry age 8-16mo) followed up 12 months later. Detection vision (Near Detection Scale [NDS]) and resolution acuity (Keeler Acuity Cards [KAC]) were assessed at each time point. Relationships between detection vision, resolution acuity, and age were investigated., Results: The study cohort comprised 80 children (39 females, 41 males), mean age 13 months (Time 1) and 26 months (Time 2); 22 (27.5%) with PVI (light perception at best) and 58 (72.5%) with SVI (basic 'form' vision) at Time 1. All children achieved a measure with the NDS, however only 35 per cent and 56 per cent at Time 1 and Time 2 respectively did so on KAC. Those with PVI at Time 1 showed no further improvement at Time 2, but 87 per cent of children with SVI showed improvement in vision. The median change in NDS score was 1.0 (range 1-7, SD 1.68)., Interpretation: Vision development continues after 12 months of age in many toddlers if they have basic 'form' vision. A measure of detection vision is feasible in very young children when resolution acuity measurement is not achievable., What This Paper Adds: The Near Detection Scale (NDS) can measure low levels of vision when acuity is not otherwise measurable. Vision can improve in toddlers with severe visual impairment who have some 'form' vision. Infants with light perception at best by 12 months are unlikely to show improvement in vision. There is a moderate negative relationship between the NDS and resolution acuity results., (© 2020 Mac Keith Press.)

Aim: To examine if congenital visual impairment is associated with differences in brain anatomy in children., Method: Ten children (8-12y) with congenital disorders of the peripheral visual system with severe visual impairment (SVI; >0.8 logMAR) or mild-to-moderate visual impairment (MVI; 0.6-0.8 logMAR) were compared to 21 typically sighted comparison (TSC) children. Thalamus volume, grey matter density, white matter microstructure, and integrity of visual tracts were investigated in SVI, MVI, and TSC groups with anatomical and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging., Results: Compared to the TSC group, the SVI group had lower white matter integrity in tracts of the visual system (optic radiations: SVI 0.35±0.015, TSC 0.39±0.007 [p=0.022]; posterior corpus callosum: SVI 0.37±0.019; TSC 0.42±0.009 [p=0.033]) and lower left thalamus volume (SVI 4.37±0.087; TSC 4.99±0.339 [p=0.015]). Neuroanatomical differences were greater in the SVI group, while no consistent differences between the MVI and TSC group were observed., Interpretation: Posterior tracts of the visual system are compromised in children with congenital visual impairment versus those who are typically sighted. The severity of visual input appears to have affected neuroanatomical development as significant reductions were only found in the SVI group., What This Paper Adds: Severe visual impairment in mid-childhood is associated with reduced integrity of visual pathways and reduced thalamus volume., (© 2019 The Authors. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Mac Keith Press.)

Aim: To investigate the effects of home-based early intervention in children with severe visual impairment (SVI) using the Developmental Journal for babies and young children with visual impairment (DJVI)., Method: A longitudinal observational study was undertaken with a national cohort (OPTIMUM) of infants with congenital disorders of the peripheral visual system (CDPVS) and profound-SVI; and followed up after 12 months and 24 months. Intervention was categorized according to the practitioner diary records of their usual practice over 12 months from baseline comparing those receiving the DJVI and those receiving 'Other Support'. Outcome measures of cognition and language, behaviour difficulties, parenting stress, and satisfaction with parent-practitioner partnership were collected., Results: In the 54 children (26 males, 28 females, baseline mean age 13.5mo, SD 2.3mo, range 8-17mo) with 'total' CDPVS (including 16 'complex' and 38 'simple' with or without known brain disorder respectively), linear mixed effects pointed towards acceleration in sensorimotor understanding and expressive language especially in the 'simple' subsample (11.72 developmental quotient, 95% confidence interval -1.17 to 24.61, p>0.05) in those receiving the DJVI. Vision level also predicted outcomes (p<0.05). The DJVI group showed improvements in behavioural withdrawal (η 2 =0.20, p=0.02, 'simple') and parenting stress (d=0.78, d=0.92, p=0.02 total and 'simple' respectively) and perceived practitioner-parent relationship (η 2 =0.16, p=0.01)., Interpretation: Infants and young children with visual impairment receiving home-based early intervention using the DJVI with a structured developmental approach had better outcomes than those receiving 'other' home-based early interventions. Moderate to large effect improvements were found in child cognition and language, behaviour and parenting stress and the perceived practitioner-parent relationship, although cognition did not reach 5% significance level., What This Paper Adds: Early intervention using the Developmental Journal for babies and young children with visual impairment was associated with enhanced developmental outcomes compared to other approaches. Improvements were also found in child behaviour, parenting stress, and perceived parent practitioner outcomes. Type and complexity of visual impairment also influenced outcomes., (© 2018 Mac Keith Press.)

Background: Adaptive behaviours are vital skills that allow individuals to function independently and are potentially amenable to behavioural interventions. Previous research indicated that adaptive behaviours are reduced in children and adolescents with severe to profound VI, but it was unclear if this was also the case for children with mild to moderate VI., Aim: The aim of the study was to assess differences in adaptive behaviour in children with congenital visual disorders and different levels of visual impairment and their influence on quality of life and everyday strengths and difficulties., Methods and Procedures: Questionnaires about adaptive behaviour, strengths and difficulties, and quality of life were completed by parents of school-age children with severe-to-profound VI (S/PVI, n = 9, 0.9 logMAR - light perception only), mild-to-moderate VI (MVI, n = 9, 0.1-0.7 logMAR), or typical sight (control, n = 18, -0.3 to 0.1 logMAR). Differences in questionnaire domains by the severity of VI and relationships between adaptive behaviour and quality of life were analysed in general linear models., Outcomes and Results: The questionnaire ratings indicated reduced adaptive behaviour, more difficulties, and reduced quality of life in children with S/PVI compared to typically-sighted peers. Effects were smaller for children with MVI, but indicated a significant reduction in quality of life compared to typically-sighted children. The effect of visual impairment on quality of life in school was partially mediated by adaptive behaviour., Conclusion and Implication: Severe congenital visual impairment affects adaptive behaviour in children with verbal abilities in the typical range. This effect is less pronounced in children with mild-to-moderate VI, but still impacts on quality of life, particularly in school., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The childhood condition of visual difficulties caused by brain damage, commonly termed cortical or cerebral visual impairment (CVI), is well established but has no internationally accepted definition. Clarification of its core features is required to advance research and clinical practice. This systematic review aimed to identify the definitions of childhood CVI in the original scientific literature to describe and critically appraise a consensual definition of the condition. MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsychINFO, CINAHL and AMED databases were searched in January 2017. Studies were included if they (1) were published original research, (2) contained a childhood CVI sample, (3) contained a definition of CVI and (4) described their CVI identification/diagnostic method. Thematic analysis identified concepts within definitions and narrative synthesis was conducted. Of 1150 articles, 51 met inclusion criteria. Definitions were subdivided according to detail (descriptive definition, description not reaching definition status and diagnostic/operationalising criteria). Three themes concerning visual deficits, eye health and brain integrity were identified (each containing subthemes) and analysed individually across definitions. The most common themes were ' visual impairment' (n=20), 'retrochiasmatic pathway damage'(n=13) and 'normal/near normal eye health' (n=15). The most consensual definition identified here may not be the best quality for advancing our understanding of CVI. We argue for the alternative definition: CVI is a verifiable visual dysfunction which cannot be attributed to disorders of the anterior visual pathways or any potentially co-occurring ocular impairment. We propose reporting guidelines to permit comparison across studies and increase the evidence base for more reliable clinical assessment and diagnosis., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2018. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

Aim: This study examined cross-sectional and longitudinal patterns of parenting stress, adult anxiety, and depression in mothers of children with profound or severe visual impairment (PVI or SVI) at 1 year and 2 years of age., Method: Mothers of a national longitudinal cohort (OPTIMUM Project) of infants with congenital disorders of the peripheral visual system and PVI (light perception at best) or SVI (basic 'form' vision of non-light reflecting objects) participated. Infant age at baseline (T 1 ) was 8 to 16 months. Mothers completed the Parenting Stress Index - Short Form and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale at T 1 (n=79) and at follow-up 12 months later (T 2 ) (n=73)., Results: Mothers of the total group had higher parenting stress levels (34.6% in clinical range) than community normative data at T 1 (p=0.017). Mothers of infants in the PVI subgroup had elevated stress at T 1 (p=0.014) and T 2 (p=0.009). The PVI subgroup was also elevated in the Difficult Child subscale at T 2 (p=0.001). Within-sample differences in parenting stress between the visual impairment subgroups were found at T 2 only: the PVI subgroup scored higher than the SVI subgroup (p=0.029). Adult anxiety and depression in the total group were not elevated compared with community normative data at T 1 and T 2 ; however, higher parenting stress was related to raised adult anxiety and depression levels at T 1 and T 2 (p=0.001). Regression analysis found parenting stress and lower child vision level (T 1 ) predicted parenting stress (T 2 ) (p=0.001; 42% variance)., Interpretation: Mothers of 1-year-old infants with visual impairment showed raised risk for parenting stress, which continued to be elevated for children with PVI and those perceived as 'difficult' at 2 years. This was also a psychological risk, with greater adult anxiety and depression in those mothers with raised parenting stress. The clinical significance is that identification of parenting stress and targeted parenting, and behavioural support of the child in the first years of life is highly indicated., What This Paper Adds: Mothers of infants with visual impairment are at increased risk of parenting stress. Parenting stress was higher in mothers of children with profound visual impairment than those with severe visual impairment. High levels of parenting stress and lower infant vision at 1 year of age predicted higher parenting stress at 2 years of age., (© 2017 Mac Keith Press.)

Objective: Young children with congenital visual impairment (VI) are at increased risk of behavioral vulnerabilities. Studies on 'at risk' populations suggest that frontal EEG asymmetry may be associated with behavioral risk. We investigated frontal asymmetry at 1year (Time 1), behavior at 2years (Time 2) and their longitudinal associations within a sample of infants with VI. Frontal asymmetry in the VI sample at 1year was also compared cross-sectionally to an age-matched typically sighted (TS) group., Methods: At Time 1, 22 infants with VI and 10 TS infants underwent 128-channel EEG recording. Frontal asymmetry ratios were calculated from power spectral density values in the alpha frequency band. At Time 2, Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist data was obtained for the VI sample., Results: 63.6% of the VI sample and 50% of the TS sample showed left frontal asymmetry; no significant difference in frontal asymmetry was found between the two groups. 22.7% of the VI sample had subclinical to clinical range 'internalizing' behavior difficulties. Greater left frontal asymmetry at one year was significantly associated with greater emotionally reactive scores at two years within the VI sample (r=0.50, p=0.02)., Conclusions: Left frontal asymmetry correlates with later behavior risk within this vulnerable population., Significance: These findings make an important first contribution regarding the utility of frontal EEG asymmetry as a method to investigate risk in infants with VI., (Copyright © 2017 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Aim: the aim of this study was to study systematically social, communication, and repetitive/restrictive (SCRR) behavioural difficulties and clinical autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children with optic nerve hypoplasia (ONH) and/or septo-optic dysplasia (SOD), and to investigate the relationship between visual impairment, SCRR difficulties, ASD, and cognition., Method: a case-note study of clinic records from a specialist developmental vision service was completed. Standardized assessments of vision and development and clinician judgements about SCRR difficulties and clinical ASD were made by a multidisciplinary team., Results: a total of 45 females and 38 males (mean age 3y 5mo; range 10mo-6y 10mo) with ONH or SOD and profound visual impairment (PVI) or severe visual impairment (SVI) were assessed. A total of 58% of children had at least one SCRR difficulty, and 31% had a clinical diagnosis of ASD. The prevalence of ASD was slightly higher in children with SOD than in children with ONH (36% vs 26%) also slightly more frequent in children with PVI than in children with SVI (36% vs 27%). The prevalence of SCRR difficulties was statistically higher in children with PVI than in children with SVI (p=0.003). Clinical ASD was most likely to be diagnosed between 2 years 4 months and 4 years 6 months. Development was significantly delayed in children with ASD compared with children without social communication difficulties (p=0.001)., Interpretation: children with SVI or PVI are at risk of SCRR difficulties and clinical ASD. Children with ONH and/or SOD and visual impairment have a similar risk of developing clinical ASD as other visual impairment groups. However, ASD prevalence data from this study are a minimum estimate, as some young children may have developed ASD behaviours in later childhood. Developmental surveillance for children with ONH and/or SOD should continue until at least the age of 4 years 6 months.