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Introduction: Despite a decade of policy actions, Ulaanbaatar's residents continue to be exposed to extreme levels of air pollution, a major public health concern, especially for vulnerable populations such as pregnant women and children. In May 2019, the Mongolian government implemented a raw coal ban (RCB), prohibiting distribution and use of raw coal in households and small businesses in Ulaanbaatar. Here, we present the protocol for an interrupted time series (ITS; a strong quasi-experimental study design for public health interventions) that aims to assess the effectiveness of this coal ban policy on environmental (air quality) and health (maternal and child) outcomes., Methods and Analysis: Routinely collected data on pregnancy and child respiratory health outcomes between 2016 and 2022 in Ulaanbaatar will be collected retrospectively from the four main hospitals providing maternal and/or paediatric care as well as the National Statistics Office. Hospital admissions data for childhood diarrhoea, an unrelated outcome to air pollution exposure, will be collected to control for unknown or unmeasured coinciding events. Retrospective air pollution data will be collected from the district weather stations and the US Embassy. An ITS analysis will be conducted to determine the RCB intervention impact on these outcomes. Prior to the ITS, we have proposed an impact model based on a framework of five key factors, which were identified through literature search and qualitative research to potentially influence the intervention impact assessment., Ethics and Dissemination: Ethical approval has been obtained via the Ministry of Health, Mongolia (No.445) and University of Birmingham (ERN_21-1403). To inform relevant stakeholders of our findings, key results will be disseminated on both (inter)national and population levels through publications, scientific conferences and community briefings. These findings are aimed to provide evidence for decision-making in coal pollution mitigation strategies in Mongolia and similar settings throughout the world., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Interventions to reduce household air pollution (HAP) are key to reducing associated morbidity and mortality in low- and middle- income countries (LMICs); especially among pregnant women and young children. This systematic review aims to determine the effectiveness of interventions aimed to reduce HAP exposure associated with domestic solid biomass fuel combustion, compared to usual cooking practices, for improving health outcomes in pregnant women and children under five in LMIC settings. A systematic review and meta-analysis was undertaken with searches undertaken in MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, GIM, ClinicalTrials.gov, and Greenfile in August 2020. Inclusion criteria were experimental, non-experimental, or quasi-experimental studies investigating the impact of interventions to reduce HAP exposure and improve associated health outcomes among pregnant women or children under 5 years. Study selection, data extraction, and quality assessment using the Effective Public Health Practice Project tool were undertaken independently by two reviewers. Seventeen out of 7293 retrieved articles (seven pregnancy, nine child health outcome; 13 studies) met the inclusion criteria. These assessed improved cookstoves (ICS; n = 10 studies), ethanol stoves (n = 1 study), and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG; n = 2 studies) stoves interventions. Meta-analysis showed no significant effect of ICS interventions compared to traditional cooking for risk of preterm birth (n = 2 studies), small for gestational age (n = 2 studies), and incidence of acute respiratory infections (n = 6 studies). Although an observed increase in mean birthweight was observed, this was not statistically significant (n = 4). However, ICS interventions reduced the incidence of childhood burns (n = 3; observations = 41 723; Rate Ratio: 0.66 [95% CI: 0.45-0.96]; I 2 : 46.7%) and risk of low birth weight (LBW; n = 4; observations = 3456; Odds Ratio: 0.73 [95% CI: 0.61-0.87]; I 2 : 21.1%). Although few studies reported health outcomes, the data indicate that ICS interventions were associated with reduced risk of childhood burns and LBW. The data highlight the need for the development and implementation of robust, well-reported and monitored, community-driven intervention trials with longer-term participant follow-up., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: A variety of public health interventions have been undertaken in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) to prevent morbidity and mortality associated with household air pollution (HAP) due to cooking, heating and lighting with solid biomass fuels. Pregnant women and children under five are particularly vulnerable to the effects of HAP, due to biological susceptibility and typically higher exposure levels. However, the relative health benefits of interventions to reduce HAP exposure among these groups remain unclear. This systematic review aims to assess, among pregnant women, infants and children (under 5 years) in LMIC settings, the effectiveness of interventions which aim to reduce household air pollutant emissions due to household solid biomass fuel combustion, compared to usual cooking practices, in terms of health outcomes associated with HAP exposure., Methods: This protocol follows standard systematic review processes and abides by the PRISMA-P reporting guidelines. Searches will be undertaken in MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP), The Global Index Medicus (GIM), ClinicalTrials.gov and Greenfile, combining terms for pregnant women and children with interventions or policy approaches to reduce HAP from biomass fuels or HAP terms and LMIC countries. Included studies will be those reporting (i) pregnant women and children under 5 years; (ii) fuel transition, structural, educational or policy interventions; and (iii) health events associated with HAP exposure which occur among pregnant women or among children within the perinatal period, infancy and up to 5 years of age. A narrative synthesis will be undertaken for each population-intervention-outcome triad stratified by study design. Clinical and methodological homogeneity within each triad will be used to determine the feasibility for undertaking meta-analyses to give a summary estimate of the effect for each outcome., Discussion: This systematic review will identify the effectiveness of existing HAP intervention measures in LMIC contexts, with discussion on the context of implementation and adoption, and summarise current literature of relevance to maternal and child health. This assessment reflects the need for HAP interventions which achieve measurable health benefits, which would need to be supported by policies that are socially and economically acceptable in LMIC settings worldwide., Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO CRD42020164998.

Concerns over the welfare of older people in winter have led to interventions and advice campaigns meant to improve their ability to keep warm, but older people themselves are not always willing to follow these recommendations. In this paper we draw on an in-depth study that followed twenty one older person households in the UK over a cold winter and examined various aspects of their routine warmth-related practices at home and the rationales underpinning them. We find that although certain aspects of ageing did lead participants to feel they had changing warmth needs, their practices were also shaped by the problematic task of negotiating identities in the context of a wider stigmatisation of older age and an evident resistance to ageist discourses. After outlining the various ways in which this was manifest in our study, we conclude by drawing out the implications for future policy and research., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OAC) is less common and develops at a later age in women compared with men. Endogenous oestrogen may therefore protect against OAC development. A cohort of women with breast cancer, a tumour commonly treated with oestrogen antagonists, was examined to identify the subsequent risk of developing OAC. Earlier studies have implicated radiotherapy in increasing oesophageal cancer (OC) risk among women with breast cancer. West Midlands Cancer Intelligence Unit data recording cancer diagnosis and treatment information was examined to identify patients with a first malignant primary breast cancer during 1977-2004. Patients were followed until diagnosis of a second primary cancer, death or end of the time period examined. Age-adjusted and period-adjusted standardized incidence ratios (SIR) were calculated as an estimate of relative risk for a second primary OC. Seventy-three thousand six hundred and thirteen women were eligible for the study, providing 486 679 person years at risk for analysis. One hundred and thirty-two second primary OCs were observed, compared with 121 expected (SIR 1.09; 95% confidence interval: 0.91-1.29). Radiotherapy treatment in 37 888 women did not affect the risk of a second primary OC (SIR 1.07; 95% confidence interval: 0.79-1.41). No difference was identified when examined by OC morphology.There was no association between breast cancer and a second primary OC. Radiotherapy that avoids deep irradiation in the treatment of breast cancer, local nodes or recurrence was not associated with an increased risk of developing a second primary OC.

The incidence of esophageal cancer (EC), particularly esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC), has been rising dramatically. In the USA, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is associated with deprivation and black ethnicity, while EAC is more common among whites. The influence of social deprivation and ethnicity has not been studied in England. West Midlands Cancer Intelligence Unit data were used to study the incidence of ESCC and EAC, and the influence of age, sex, socioeconomic status (Townsend quintiles by postcode) and ethnicity (to individual patients from Hospital Episode Statistics). From 1977 to 2004, a total of 15,138 EC were identified. Five-year directly age standardized incidence rates per 100,000 (95% CI) for men increased from 8.6 (8.0-9.1) in 1977-1981 to 13.7 (13.1-14.3) in 2000-2004 and for women from 5.0 (4.7-5.4) to 6.3 (5.9-6.6). ESCC incidence did not alter, but EAC incidence rose rapidly in males [2.1 (1.9-2.4) to 8.5 (8.1-9.0)] and in females [0.5 (0.4-0.6) to 1.7 (1.5-1.9)]. ESCC was strongly associated with the most socially deprived quintile. EAC was not associated with differences in socioeconomic status. EAC was significantly more common in white men 7.3 (6.9-7.7) and women 1.5 (1.3-1.6) when compared with black and Asian populations. In England the incidence of EAC has rapidly risen, particularly in men over the last three decades. ESCC was strongly associated with social deprivation. EAC was more common in white populations, but no association with the socioeconomic status was found.

Oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OAC) is more common in men. Androgens may therefore contribute to the pathogenesis of OAC. Prostate cancer (PC), an androgen sensitive tumor with a long natural history, may allow insights into this putative association. West Midlands Cancer Intelligence Unit data from 1977 to 2004 were examined to identify patients with a first malignant primary of PC. Patients were followed until diagnosis of a second primary cancer, death or end of the time period. Age- and period-adjusted standardized incidence ratios (SIR) were calculated as an estimate of the relative risk of a second malignant primary of the oesophagus. Between 1977 and 2004, 44,819 men within the West Midlands developed PC as a first primary malignancy. After exclusion for lack of follow-up, 38,627 men were eligible, providing 143,526 person years at risk for analysis. 86 second primary oesophageal cancers were observed, compared with 110 expected, resulting in an SIR of 0.78 (95% CI 0.62-0.96). There was a reduced risk of OAC 0.7 (0.5-0.95) but not of oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) 1.03 (0.69-1.47). The risk of developing OAC, but not OSCC, is lower than expected in patients with PC. A diagnosis of PC may be associated with aetiological factors that are negatively associated with OAC, or anti-androgen therapy may influence the development of OAC.