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Bacteria of the genus Brucella are facultative intracellular parasites that cause brucellosis, a severe animal and human disease. Recently, a group of taxonomists merged the brucellae with the primarily free-living, phylogenetically related Ochrobactrum spp. in the genus Brucella. This change, founded only on global genomic analysis and the fortuitous isolation of some opportunistic Ochrobactrum spp. from medically compromised patients, has been automatically included in culture collections and databases. We argue that clinical and environmental microbiologists should not accept this nomenclature, and we advise against its use because (i) it was presented without in-depth phylogenetic analyses and did not consider alternative taxonomic solutions; (ii) it was launched without the input of experts in brucellosis or Ochrobactrum ; (iii) it applies a non-consensus genus concept that disregards taxonomically relevant differences in structure, physiology, population structure, core-pangenome assemblies, genome structure, genomic traits, clinical features, treatment, prevention, diagnosis, genus description rules, and, above all, pathogenicity; and (iv) placing these two bacterial groups in the same genus creates risks for veterinarians, medical doctors, clinical laboratories, health authorities, and legislators who deal with brucellosis, a disease that is particularly relevant in low- and middle-income countries. Based on all this information, we urge microbiologists, bacterial collections, genomic databases, journals, and public health boards to keep the Brucella and Ochrobactrum genera separate to avoid further bewilderment and harm., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The effect of whole linseeds or hemp seeds on milk production, energy and nitrogen balance, and methane emission was studied in 12 Alpine goats using respiration chambers. Diets tested were a control diet (C) and two diets supplemented with whole linseeds (L) or hemp seeds (H) at 9.3% on a dry matter (DM) basis. DM intake was similar among treatments, whereas DM and organic matter digestibility were lower for L compared to C. Milk yield (2.30 kg/d on average) and rumen fermentation profile were not affected by treatments. Treatment also did not affect the milk composition, with the exception of fat, which was higher in H and L compared to C (4.21, 3.94, and 3.20%, respectively). Oilseed supplementation caused a reduction in the concentration of de novo fatty acids (FA) (41.1, 48.8, and 64.1% of FA, for L, H, and C, respectively). Moreover, L and H diets reduced the sum of saturated FA, and increased monounsaturated FA, whereas only the L diet increased the concentration of polyunsaturated FA. Regarding methane production, and nitrogen and energy balances, no differences were registered among the diets. Our research indicates that including whole linseeds and hemp seeds in the dairy goat diet is an effective strategy for increasing milk fat content and positively modifying the milk FA composition, without a change in nitrogen and energy balances, but also without a reduction in enteric methane emission.

Historic Rebel (HR) cheese is an Italian heritage cheese, produced from raw milk during the summer grazing period in the Alps. The aim of this work was (i) to characterize the cheese microbiota, by 16S rRNA gene amplicons sequencing, and the volatile and non-volatile lipophilic fraction, by Gas Chromatography and Dynamic Headspace Extraction-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, and (ii) to evaluate their respective associations. HR cheese was dominated by Firmicutes phylum (99% of the entire abundance). The core microbiota was formed by Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc and Pediococcus genera together representing 87.2-99.6% of the total abundance. The polyunsaturated fatty acids composition showed a high PUFA n-3, PUFA n-6 and CLA content, two fold higher than typical plain cheeses, positively correlated with pasture altitude. A complex volatilome was detected, dominated in terms of abundance by ketones, fatty acids and alcohols. Total terpene levels increased at higher altitudes, being the main terpenes compounds α-pinene, camphene and β-pinene. The HR cheese showed a great diversity of bacterial taxa and lipophilic fractions among producers, despite belonging to a small alpine area, revealing a scarce cheese standardization and a chemical fingerprint of a typical mountain cheese produced during the grazing period. A deeper knowledge of the variability of HR cheese due to its composition in microbial community and volatile compounds will be appreciated, in particular, by elite consumers looking for niche products, adding economic value to farming in these alpine areas.

Despite sharing many of the traits that have allowed the genus Bacillus to gain recognition for its agricultural relevance, the genus Lysinibacillus is not as well-known and studied. The present study employs in vitro, in vivo, in planta, and in silico approaches to characterize Lysinibacillus fusiformis strain S4C11, isolated from the roots of an apple tree in northern Italy. The in vitro and in vivo assays demonstrated that strain S4C11 possesses an antifungal activity against different fungal pathogens, and is capable of interfering with the germination of Botrytis cinerea conidia, as well as of inhibiting its growth through the production of volatile organic molecules. In planta assays showed that the strain possesses the ability to promote plant growth, that is not host-specific, both in controlled conditions and in a commercial nursery. Biocontrol assays carried out against phytopathogenic viruses gave contrasting results, suggesting that the strain does not activate the host's defense pathways. The in silico analyses were carried out by sequencing the genome of the strain through an innovative approach that combines Illumina and High-Definition Mapping methods, allowing the reconstruction of a main chromosome and two plasmids from strain S4C11. The analysis of the genes encoded by the genome contributed to the characterization of the strain, detecting genes related to the biocontrol effect detected in the experimental trials., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Milk microbiota represents a key point in raw milk cheese production and contributes to the development of typical flavor and texture for each type of cheese. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the influence of chlorine products usage for cleaning and sanitizing the milking equipment on (i) raw milk microbiota; (ii) the deriving whey-starter microbiota; and (iii) Trentingrana Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) cheese microbiota and volatilome. Milk samples from three farms affiliated to a Trentingrana PDO cheese factory were collected three times per week during a 6-weeks period in which a sodium hypochlorite detergent (period C) was used and during a subsequent 6-weeks period of non-chlorine detergent usage (period NC). Samples were subjected to microbiological [Standard Plate Count; coliforms; coagulase-positive staphylococci; and lactic acid bacteria (LAB)] and metagenomic analysis (amplification of V3-V4 regions of 16S rRNA gene performed on Illumina MiSeq platform). In addition, cheese volatilome was determined by SPME-GC-MS. In the transition from period C to period NC, higher SPC and LAB counts in milk were recorded. Milk metagenomic analysis showed a peculiar distinctive microbiota composition for the three farms during the whole experimental period. Moreover, differences were highlighted comparing C and NC periods in each farm. A difference in microbial population related to chlorine usage in bulk milk and vat samples was evidenced. Moreover, chlorine utilization at farm level was found to affect the whey-starter population: the usually predominant Lactobacillus helveticus was significantly reduced during NC period, whereas Lactobacillus delbrueckii had the exact opposite trend. Alpha- and beta-diversity revealed a separation between the two treatment periods with a higher presence of L. helveticus , L. delbrueckii , and Streptococcus thermophilus in cheese samples after NC detergent period. Cheese volatilome analysis showed a slight decrease in lipolysis during C period in the inner part of the cheese wheel. Although preliminary, these results suggest a profound influence on milk and cheese microbiota, as well as on raw milk cheese production and quality, due to the use of chlorine. However, further studies will be needed to better understand the complex relationship between chlorine and microbiota along all the cheese production steps., (Copyright © 2020 Cremonesi, Morandi, Ceccarani, Battelli, Castiglioni, Cologna, Goss, Severgnini, Mazzucchi, Partel, Tamburini, Zanini and Brasca.)

Although camelina [ Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz] is a good source of protein, antioxidants, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, its antinutritional compounds limit its use in animal feeding. The aim of this study was to verify the effect of feeding laying hens with up to 20% of camelina cake from a breeding line containing a low level of glucosinolates on performance, welfare, and eggshell quality. Two hundred and forty Hy-Line ® hens from 18 to 51 weeks of age were divided into three treatments: control (C), camelina cake 10% (CAM10), and camelina cake 20% (CAM20). Egg number was recorded daily, while egg weight, feed consumption, and mortality were recorded weekly. At 24 and 43 weeks of hen age, shell resistance to fracture was measured. Our results demonstrate no detrimental effects for CAM10 and CAM20 diets on feed intake, growth performance, and welfare. No difference in egg production was detected among the diets. The significant ( p < 0.05) interaction of diet and age factors suggest that the addition of camelina cake, up to 20%, likely protects the eggshell of older hens. Our findings confirm that camelina cake might be an alternative and sustainable protein source for hens.

An important problem in mountain areas is the abandonment of pasture. This trend can be combated by the valorisation of typical dairy products, such as "Formaggella della Valle di Scalve", a semi-cooked traditional cheese made from whole milk in a mountain area in Italy. The aim of the present research was to compare the fatty acid (FA) profile and the sensory properties of this cheese as manufactured under different conditions: i) from the milk of cows grazing on mountain or valley pasture or fed indoors; ii) from the milk of cows fed hay or fed silage. In the first case, five cheesemaking trials were conducted during two years for each of the following situations: mountain pasture (A); pasture at the bottom of the valley (P) (about 1000m asl); stall (S). In the second case, three cheesemaking trials were conducted for each of the following situations: cows fed silage (I); cows fed hay (F). S cheese was richer in medium-chain FAs, while long-chain FAs were higher in P and A cheeses. On the other hand, long chain fatty acids (LCFA) were more abundant in P and A cheeses than in S. In general, MUFA, PUFA and, consequently, total unsaturated FA (UFA), were significantly higher in the P and A cheeses than S (UFA: 36.55 and 38.34, respectively, vs 31.13; p < 0.001), while SFA showed higher values in S (68.85 vs 63.41 and 61.68 in P and A, respectively; p < 0.001). Conjugated linoleic acid isomers (CLA) were more represented in the P and A samples (1.86 in P and 1.52 in A, vs 0.80 in S; p < 0.001); Omega 3 fatty acids, and in particular α-linolenic acid, were more abundant in P than in S cheese. In winter, the I sample (silage) presented higher percentages of myristic (C14), myristoleic (C14:1) and omega 6 acids, whereas F cheese (hay) contained higher concentrations of CLA. The triangular test of sensory analysis showed that, in general, F cheeses were judged as "sweeter" than I, with aromatic profiles characterized by higher content of 2- butanol and ethyl capronate.

1. The purpose of this study was to examine if the concentration of thymol as the main compound of Thymus vulgaris essential oil (TEO) influenced the antioxidant defence system in broilers. 2. Twenty-four broiler chickens were randomly divided at the day of hatching into three dietary treatment groups (0%, 0.05% and 0.1%, w/w TEO) with eight birds in each and were fed until four weeks of age. 3. Thymol content in plasma, duodenal wall and breast muscle significantly increased when 0.1% of thyme oil was added to the diet ( P < 0.05). Thymol concentration in plasma significantly correlated with levels measured in the duodenal wall and feed (r s = 0.7857, P < 0.05; r s = 0.7647, P < 0.05). Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity increased, and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration decreased significantly ( P < 0.05) in blood from chickens fed 0.1% TEO supplementation. Although the thymol concentration did not significantly decrease MDA amounts in breast muscle, a declining trend was observed. 4. The trial data confirmed the efficient absorption of thymol from the digestive tract into the systemic circulation, but only traces were found in breast muscle. Thymol content was sufficient for expressing its antioxidant properties in blood, but its low content in breast muscle was insufficient to significantly affect lipid oxidation and fatty acid composition.

Plants develop in a microbe-rich environment and must interact with a plethora of microorganisms, both pathogenic and beneficial. Indeed, such is the case of Pseudomonas , and its model organisms P. fluorescens and P. syringae , a bacterial genus that has received particular attention because of its beneficial effect on plants and its pathogenic strains. The present study aims to compare plant-beneficial and pathogenic strains belonging to the P. syringae species to get new insights into the distinction between the two types of plant-microbe interactions. In assays carried out under greenhouse conditions, P. syringae pv. syringae strain 260-02 was shown to promote plant-growth and to exert biocontrol of P. syringae pv. tomato strain DC3000, against the Botrytis cinerea fungus and the Cymbidium Ringspot Virus . This P. syringae strain also had a distinct volatile emission profile, as well as a different plant-colonization pattern, visualized by confocal microscopy and gfp labeled strains, compared to strain DC3000. Despite the different behavior, the P. syringae strain 260-02 showed great similarity to pathogenic strains at a genomic level. However, genome analyses highlighted a few differences that form the basis for the following hypotheses regarding strain 260-02. P. syringae strain 260-02: (i) possesses non-functional virulence genes, like the mangotoxin-producing operon Mbo ; (ii) has different regulation pathways, suggested by the difference in the autoinducer system and the lack of a virulence activator gene; (iii) has genes encoding DNA methylases different from those found in other P. syringae strains, suggested by the presence of horizontal-gene-transfer-obtained methylases that could affect gene expression.

Plant compounds occurring in phytogenic feed additives are involved in different pharmacological activities in the animal organism. Since the digestive tract acts as a first line of defence against foreign compounds, it is necessary to outline its response to dietary supplementation with bioactive plant components. Little information is available on the bioactivity of thymol as the main bioactive compound of Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil (TEO). The main objective of the present study was to provide a detailed view of the concentrations of thymol in plasma and the content of individual intestinal segments (duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum and colon) of broiler chickens after 4 weeks of dietary supplementation with different TEO concentrations. 32 one-day old Ross 308 hybrid broilers were randomly divided into four dietary treatment groups (0.00%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1% w/w of TEO in the diet). Thymol concentrations in the duodenal chyme presented around 7% on average from the thymol amount administered in the feed. A significantly increased thymol amount was observed after 0.1% TEO addition to the diet compared with 0.01% TEO enrichment in the duodenal wall and gut content of jejunum, ileum, caecum and colon (p < 0.05). Thymol levels in the colon were significantly higher than in the ileum and about 1.7 times higher on average than those in the caecum. Significant coefficient of correlation was observed between thymol concentrations in plasma and feed, gut content of all intestinal segments as well as duodenal wall. Our results point to intensive thymol absorption in the initial sections of the digestive tract. In the current study, the role of intestine in biotransformation of thymol was observed, and it would be desirable to investigate whether thymol itself or thymol metabolites are responsible for beneficial effects in intestine., (© 2018 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

Fat supplementation plays an important role in defining milk fatty acids (FA) composition of ruminant products. The use of sources rich in linoleic and α-linolenic acid favors the accumulation of conjugated linoleic acids isomers, increasing the healthy properties of milk. Ruminal microbiota plays a pivotal role in defining milk FA composition, and its profile is affected by diet composition. The aim of this study was to investigate the responses of rumen FA production and microbial structure to hemp or linseed supplementation in diets of dairy goats. Ruminal microbiota composition was determined by 16S amplicon sequencing, whereas FA composition was obtained by gas-chromatography technique. In all, 18 pluriparous Alpine goats fed the same pre-treatment diet for 40±7 days were, then, arranged to three dietary treatments consisting of control, linseed and hemp seeds supplemented diets. Independently from sampling time and diets, bacterial community of ruminal fluid was dominated by Bacteroidetes (about 61.2%) and Firmicutes (24.2%) with a high abundance of Prevotellaceae (41.0%) and Veillonellaceae (9.4%) and a low presence of Ruminococcaceae (5.0%) and Lachnospiraceae (4.3%). Linseed supplementation affected ruminal bacteria population, with a significant reduction of biodiversity; in particular, relative abundance of Prevotella was reduced (-12.0%), whereas that of Succinivibrio and Fibrobacter was increased (+50.0% and +75.0%, respectively). No statistically significant differences were found among the average relative abundance of archaeal genera between each dietary group. Moreover, the addition of linseed and hemp seed induced significant changes in FA concentration in the rumen, as a consequence of shift from C18 : 2n-6 to C18 : 3n-3 biohydrogenation pathway. Furthermore, dimethylacetal composition was affected by fat supplementation, as consequence of ruminal bacteria population modification. Finally, the association study between the rumen FA profile and the bacterial microbiome revealed that Fibrobacteriaceae is the bacterial family showing the highest and significant correlation with FA involved in the biohydrogenation pathway of C18 : 3n-3.

In the South Mediterranean and Middle East region, interactions between humans, animals, and the surrounding environment are frequently close. This fact is mainly manifested in traditional farming settings (by sedentary, semi-sedentary, and nomadic communities) as well as where livestock intensification has been introduced. A combination of complex factors in these settings (e.g. challenges in country infrastructures and cross-sectoral collaboration/ coordination, traditional habits, poor social information, etc.) contribute to the emergence and, occasionally, to the endemic pattern of zoonoses. The phenomenal growth of international travel and trade, population displacement, and unhygienic settlements has increased the speed and ease with which pathogens and vectors can cross continents and cause outbreaks and epidemics. Programmes for the prevention and control of zoonoses have been implemented in several countries in this region; however, the expected results have not always been realised. The conflicts and civil unrest affecting certain countries in this region during the last decade, together with the mass displacement of people seeking refuge, have resulted in serious epidemiological and social impacts. Zoonoses and related food-borne diseases are, indeed, a worldwide challenge, whose prevention and control mainly depend on the actions of national authorities. Once peace has been established in this region, authorities need to address the burden of these diseases through resource mobilisation, the implementation of international agencies’ technical guidance, and inter-country collaboration.

The development of new sustainable containment strategies of plant diseases is very important to guarantee food security while reducing the environmental impact of agriculture. Research of new biocontrol agents is a long and difficult process that involves several steps that start from the identification of possible candidates which, for example, show antibiotic activities, and ends with in field, large scale trials. In this study, the plant growth promoting potential and antifungal effect exerted by a novel, putative candidate biocontrol agent, strain R16, identified as Paenibacillus pasadenensis by sequence analysis of 16S rRNA and rpoB genes, against three important plant pathogenic fungi (Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium verticillioides, and Phomopsis viticola), were assessed. Biochemical assays to determine plant growth promoting potential gave negative results for siderophore production and phosphate solubilization, and positive results for ACC-deamination and IAA production. Further biochemical assays for endophytic lifestyle and antifungal activity gave positive results for catalase and chitinase activity, respectively. In vitro antagonism assays showed that strain R16 is effective against B. cinerea, reducing mycelial growth both in dual-culture and through volatile substances, characterized to be mostly composed by farnesol, and inhibiting conidia germination. Good antagonistic potential was also observed in vitro towards P. viticola, but not towards F. verticillioides. Moreover, in vivo assays confirmed the strain R16 activity reduced the infection rate on B. cinerea-inoculated berries. The obtained results firstly proved that P. pasadenesis strain R16 is a putative plant growth promoter and effective against phytopathogenic fungi. Further studies will be needed to investigate the possible application of this strain as a biocontrol agent., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Strachitunt, a blue-veined Italian cheese, received the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) label in 2014. Its unique technological feature is represented by the dual-curd method of production. Strachitunt is produced from raw bovine milk with or without the inoculation of natural starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria, and the addition of secondary cultures of mold spores is not permitted by the product specification. Physico-chemical properties, proteolysis, and volatile profile of Strachitunt were investigated in 10 cheese samples (ripened for 75 d) made throughout spring 2015 and provided by the main cheese maker. Overall, composition parameters showed a large variability among samples. Cheese was characterized by an acid paste (pH 5.46) and a lower extent of proteolysis compared with other blue-veined varieties. The main chemical groups of volatile organic compounds were alcohols and esters, whereas ketones represented only a minor component. The erratic adventitious contamination by mold spores of the cheese milk, the unique dual-curd method of cheese-making, and the large time variability between the piercing time and the end of ripening could be highlighted as the main causes of both the distinctive analytical fingerprint and the scarce standardization of this blue-veined cheese., (Copyright © 2017 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The seed of Cannabis sativa L. is an expanding source of proteins and oil for both humans and animals. In this study, the proximate composition of a collection of hemp cultivars and accessions of different geographical origins grown under the same conditions for 1 year was analyzed in order to identify potential accessions to improve hemp cultivars. Fatty acids, tocopherols, and antinutritional components, as well as concentrations of crude protein and oil were quantified. The seed oil concentrations varied between 285 and 360 g kg(-1) dry seed (DS), while crude protein ranged between 316 and 356 g kg(-1) dry matter (DM). The seed oil was mainly composed of unsaturated fatty acids and, as expected, the dominant fatty acids were linoleic and α-linolenic acid. A high variability among the cultivars and accessions was also detected for polyphenolic content which ranged from 5.88 to 10.63 g kg(-1) DM, cv. Felina was the richest, whereas cv. Finola had the lowest polyphenolic content. Regarding antinutritional compounds in seed, a high variability was detected among all genotypes analyzed and phytic acid was particularly abundant (ranging between 43 and 75 g kg(-1) DM). In conclusion, our results reveal noticeable differences among hemp seed genotypes for antinutritional components, oil and protein content. Collectively, this study suggests that the hemp seed is an interesting product in terms of protein, oil and antioxidant molecules but a reduction of phytic acid would be desirable for both humans and monogastric animals. The high variability detected among the different genotypes indicates that an improvement of hemp seed might be possible by conventional and/or molecular breeding.

Background: Cheese is considered to increase the total cholesterol levels (CH) due to the high-saturated fat content. New models are needed to measure the relationship between cholesterol and cheese., Methods: Thirty different cheeses produced in Val Brembana, Italy ("furmai da mut", "caprino" and "stracchino"), were added to the diet of 30 groups of 4 rats. Cheeses were analyzed to differentiate the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and the cholesterol content (Ch(f)). The body weight, CH, urine volume and oxidative balance were measured. Three new indexes in relation to CH were calculated: OI (oxidative index), PI (protective index) and OBRI (oxidative balance risk index)., Results: None of the cheeses increased CH. Some of the "furmai de mut" were significantly decreasing CH and improved the oxidative balance. Ch(f) was not affecting the CH levels in plasma. In terms of VOCs, the acetic acid content was correlated (p < 0.05) with the CH reduction and PI improvement. OBRI was reduced mainly in the "stracchino group"., Conclusions: The model shows that some cheese can reduce significantly CH levels and improve the antioxidant capacity.

This study investigated the changes in chemical and microbiological properties of fresh goat milk cheese stored in an open deck refrigerated display cabinet (6 ± 2°C) or in a dark cold room (4 ± 1°C). The effects of partial-vacuum packaging and fluorescent lighting were studied during the cheese shelf life (45 d) and 15 d after. Storage conditions did not affect the pH values (4.3), whereas a slight decrease in moisture (ca. 1%) and in water activity (<0.01 units) was recorded. Proteolysis monitored by Kjeldahl determination increased significantly during storage of all samples. The highest increase from 8.5 to 13.0% of soluble nitrogen (expressed as percentage of total nitrogen) was measured in cheese packaged in the presence of air and stored in a lighted cabinet. The proteolytic trend was also studied through capillary zone electrophoresis by monitoring the degradation of the main casein fractions and the formation of new peptides. In particular, 2 indices, based on peak area ratio of new-formed peptides and casein fractions were related to cheese age. Lipolysis, measured by solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry of volatile fatty acids, was unaffected by air or light and did not proceed through storage. As expected, hexanal formed mainly in cheeses stored under light and packaged in air. Evaluation of sensorial quality, performed using a hedonic scale, showed significantly lower scores of cheeses kept under light compared with those kept in the dark, both at 45 and 60 d storage. Overall, the microbiological and chemical results suggested that the shelf life of soft goat milk cheese would be extended from 45 to 60 d. Such conclusion was supported also by the sensory quality evaluation., (Copyright © 2012 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The concept of 'one medicine' and its evolution are discussed and some considerations on the relationship between 'one medicine' and veterinary profession are made, with particular reference to Italy. The concept of 'one medicine' is mainly associated with public health and has its roots in the Italian tradition and health organisation. In a future which is already with us, the veterinary profession will be called upon to deal with many problems at worldwide level (e.g. the emergence/re-emergence of new/old zoonotic pathogens, biological and chemical contaminants in food, bacterial resistance to antibiotics, non-epidemic emergencies associated with natural or man-made disasters, animal well-being, etc.), integrating with other professions. In Italy, most of these problems find the Veterinary Services prepared, but not homogeneously throughout the country. At the present time, doubts are expressed on maintaining and improving these services, mainly due to the lack of students interested in veterinary public health (VPH) training. The globalisation of the veterinary profession imposes changes, in both culture and training. The expertise required for 'one medicine' must be considered and aspects of veterinary training should be changed to promote sharing expertise with other professionals, mainly within the Italian Health Service. The public should be informed about professional competence and activities of veterinarians, in both the private and public sectors, in order to offer a true picture of the profession, one that is not limited to the conventional model which the public generally has of veterinary medicine.

The socio-economic impact of echinococcosis, with special reference to cystic echinococcosis (CE) caused by Echinococcus granulosus, is reviewed. The following items are discussed: socio-economic consequences in humans; economic consequences in livestock; costs and benefits of control programmes; economic evaluation of control programmes; social reasons favouring the life cycle of CE; social, political and economic situations hindering the control of echinococcosis. Many consequences are difficult to evaluate from an economic point of view. However, many evaluations have shown that CE is an important (often neglected) public health and economic problem, especially in endemic areas, and that the socio-economic evaluation of its consequences and of control actions proves indispensable to best use available resources and possibly tailor control strategies.

The significance of zoonoses varies depending on many socio-economic factors and on the specific situation that prevails in a specific area. The role of the media often determines the importance given to a disease. In resource-rich countries, a zoonosis may be perceived as being important due to inaccurate information that has been circulated by mass media on the risk of infection for animals and humans and on the possible use of the agent for terrorist actions. Images of sick or dead people and animals, drastic methods of control and others, can contribute to an overestimation of the significance of a disease. Information can be lacking or absent in regard to socio-economic factors that clarify occurrence and also on geographic distribution. Therefore, the sensitivity of people can be influenced rapidly and negative socio-economic consequences can occur. These zoonoses can be named 'media-oriented (emphasised) zoonoses'. On the contrary, some zoonoses are scarcely considered for several reasons, for instance: occurrence in poverty-stricken areas and populations, risks of infection for people not considered important enough to deserve medical care, little interest from the media, decision-makers and health services, lack of information and official reports. These zoonoses can be named 'neglected zoonoses'. Some examples of zoonoses included in the above categories are described.

Zoonoses are discussed as occupational diseases, with special reference to animal husbandry and related activities. After quoting some historical references, occupational zoonoses are examined in relation to the evolution of the concept of occupational zoonosis, the involvement of the World Health Organization in this field, their socio-economic significance, the principal working activities, zoonoses of greatest importance (with special reference to the Mediterranean region), the evaluation of damage and risks. An outline is made of the transmission of zoonoses from farm workers to animals and the biological hazards from the environment. The present situation of occupational zoonoses and related risks in industrialised and traditional farming activities are presented and the importance of some emerging and re-emerging zoonoses for the health of workers is highlighted. The author concludes by stressing that the prevention of occupational zoonoses must be implemented jointly by both veterinary and medical services through preventive measures and epidemiological surveillance of human and animal health, risk evaluation, diagnosis of infections and prompt reporting. It is hoped that the future will offer better interdisciplinary collaboration and that legislation will be timely and better tailored to safeguard working health and safety.

The evolution of fatty acid (FA) and terpenoid profiles was studied in milk (n=20) and "Bitto" (n=3), a protected designation of origin cheese produced in a restricted Italian alpine area. Milk came from 25 Italian Brown cows successively grazing pastures at 1400, 2100 and 2200m during transhumance in June-September 2006. The fat matter was analyzed for FAs and terpenes by means of gas chromatography and purge & trap/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, respectively. FA composition of milk fat varied significantly (p<0.0001) in relation to contents of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), stearic, linoleic and trans-vaccenic acids. Similar monoterpene profiles characterized milk fat from cows grazing the different pastures and the highest amount of terpenes was measured in milk coming from cows grazing at 1400m. High levels of δ3-carene in milk fat were likely related to the important presence of Ligusticum mutellina in the pasture. Only negligible amounts of sesquiterpenes were detected in milk fat whereas they were the most abundant class in fodder. Both FA and terpene profiles of ripened (70 days) cheeses resembled those of the original milks. Overall, results confirm the influence of the botanical composition of mountain pastures both in enhancing the ruminal synthesis of CLA and in modifying the FA and terpenoid profiles of milk and "Bitto" cheese. Nevertheless, neither the FA nor the terpenoid profiles revealed here can be considered as "unique" to "Bitto" cheese and, for this reason, they can hardly be assumed to be biomarkers for defining a specific relationship among grazing area, milk and "Bitto" cheese. They better represent the chemical fingerprint of the cow feeding, adopted in mountain areas., (Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Between March 2003 and February 2007, the livers and the lungs of 2,231 horses from various Italian regions were examined for cystic echinococcosis presence at the time of slaughter. Hydatid cysts were found in six horses, namely four from Sardinia, one from Sicily, and one from Tuscany. The location, number, morphology, and fertility of the cysts found were determined. DNA was extracted from the germinal layers and protoscoleces of the fertile cysts and polymerase chain reactions (PCR) were performed in order to strain type DNA isolates for reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase subunit 1 (ND1), cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) and 12S partial genes. The PCR products were then purified and sequenced in forward and reverse. Hydatid materials obtained from positive animals were identified as Echinococcus granulosus s.s. (old G1, sheep strain) and Echinococcus equinus (old G4, horse strain) for ND1, CO1, and 12S partial genes. This allowed us to record the presence of the E. equinus in Italy for the first time with molecular tools and also to report new data on the epidemiological situation of this parasite in Italy.

Beef cattle heads (195 heads, 6 batches) imported for fattening from France to Italy were examined. Coprological qualitative and quantitative tests were performed, and the results analysed in relation to sex, breed, age, date of arrival, geographical origin (French department in which the animal was bred), and gathering centre (French department in which the animal was grouped with the others before travelling to Italy). The following parasites were identified: Eimeriidae (overall prevalence 60.5%); Strongyles (59%); Nematodirus spp. (14.3%); Trichuris spp. (4.1%); Capillaria spp. (2.0%); Paramphistomum spp. (27.6%); Dicrocoelium spp. (3.0%); Moniezia spp. (8.7%). All the observed parasites are widely reported in beef cattle either in Italy or in France. However, the seeming absence of Fasciola hepatica was unexpected, as well as the high prevalence of Paramphistomum spp. The variables that appeared to be more linked to parasite epidemiology were sex, altitude of the geographical origin and season.

Milk production has been a distinguishing characteristic of sheep breeding since antiquity in the Mediterranean area, including Italy, where prehistoric findings confirm this particular husbandry activity. In Homer's Odyssey, the description of Polifemo's sheep flock organization is remarkably similar to current production systems. The ancient roots of this tradition have grown into an important economic reality, with excellent levels of milk production and apporoximately 65 typical cheeses. It is interesting to note that the Italian word "pecora" (sheep) is believed to have originated from the Latin "pecunia" (money). Although heavy production losses are due to parasitic infections, only 250 papers have been published in the last 50 years in Italy on sheep parasites. Differences in climate, environmental factors and production tecniques may influence infection prevalence, load and pathogenesis. For this reason, prevention must be aimed at the particular epidemiological situation and not simply adapted from current schemes used abroad. The aim of this paper is to illustrate the epidemiology of ovine gastrointestinal nematodes in Italy and to evaluate the economic importance of their control.

The fact that people working with animals or their products may contract some infections has been known for centuries, before the introduction of the concept of zoonoses. Only recently, at least in Italy, was the prevention of occupational risks taken into account by legislation in spite of the fact that some zoonoses of livestock are of noticeable socio-economic importance. Nowadays some factors such as new production technologies, trade globalization, movements of people, changes in working conditions, are generating new zoonotic and occupational risks, some of which are considered re-emerging. The prevention of occupational zoonoses must be implemented jointly by both veterinary and medical services through prevention and epidemiological surveillance of human and animal health, risk evaluation, diagnosis of infections and working safety. Hopefully, we expect that in the future there will be better interdisciplinary collaboration and that legislation be timely tailored to the need to safeguard working health and safety.

During the period 1987-1999, 119 wolf cadavers were examined and checked for the presence of Echinococcus granulosus. All the animals were retrieved along the whole Apennines range of distribution of the species in Italy and most of them were illegally killed. Eighteen wolves resulted positive (15%). The mean intensity was 697.5. The force of infection for prevalence was 8.2 year(-1). The prevalence of the parasite was significantly and positively influenced by the local prevalence of cystic echinococcosis (CE) in sheep. Mean intensity was significantly and positively influenced by both the age of the wolf and the prevalence of CE in sheep. A deterministic model was used in order to simulate a purely theoretical sylvatic cycle of the parasites having the wolf as the only definitive host with 15% of prevalence. The expected prevalence of CE in wild intermediate species ranges between 10% and 25%. This prevalence overlaps the one observed in sheep. Even if both the wolf and the wild ungulate populations are increasing, the wolf still acts as a part of the main dog-sheep cycle of the parasite.

The socio-economic impact of cystic echinococcosis (CE), caused by Echinococcus granulosus, is reviewed with special reference to the following topics: consequences in man and livestock, costs and benefits of control programmes and economic procedures for evaluating control programmes. Examples of some important costs and benefits are given. Many consequences in man and livestock are difficult to evaluate from an economic point of view, because some basic data are difficult to obtain in many countries. However, the socio-economic evaluation of the consequences of CE and of the present and future control actions proves indispensable to best use available resources and possibly tailor control stategies.

Cystic Echinococcosis (CE) is one of the most widespread parasitoses in the Mediterranean Region (MR). This is due to various factors, the most important being the close association between man, sheep and dogs in areas where open farming is practised. Although this disease has been known for several years and many studies have been carried out, nowadays in Italy there are no complete epidemiological data on its diffusion and distribution. The available data show that CE is mainly diffused in those districts where the sheep-dog cycle can be perpetuated, such as central and southern Italy, and the islands. Furthermore, no data are available on biomolecular characterisation of the strains of Echinococcus granulosus in Italy, apart form those in Sardinia, where the G1 (sheep-dog) and G7 (pig-dog) strains were recently isolated. One of the reasons why CE is a problem with no easy solution is undoubtedly the difficulty of making a certain diagnosis in the dog, the principal definitive host of E. granulosus.

During an epidemiological survey carried out for two consecutive years (2001-2002), autochthonous cases of canine leishmaniosis (CanL) were reported in Communes of the Bologna Province (Emilia-Romagna Region, northern Italy), involved in the past (1971-1972) in a severe outbreak of human visceral leishmaniosis (VL). Serological controls, carried out by immunofluorescence antibody test on a sample of owned dogs, detected a mean prevalence of 2.5% in the first year in 4 Communes, and of 11.2% in the second year in only one Commune, where an incidence value of 9.3% was assessed. The autochthonous origin of the infection was confirmed in 11 out of 13 positive animals in the first year and in 5 out of 6 new cases in the second year. In one case the parasitological examinations led to the isolation of leishmaniae characterized as Leishmania infantum zymodeme MON 1. Entomological surveys carried out during two sandfly seasons in one of the areas concerned by the VL outbreak showed the presence of Phlebotomus perfiliewi and, to a lesser extent, of P perniciosus, both proven vectors of L. infantum in Italy. The results obtained seem to suggest the presence of a stable focus of CanL in the territory involved in the previous VL outbreak of 1971-1972, within which the infection in the canine population had been assessed only serologically. Such an epidemiological situation may be seen either as the persistence of an old focus or as a new imported one.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is an important zoonosis in Italy and in the whole Mediterranean Region, as confirmed by the work by Ettore Biocca, whose contributions to the subject are reported in a summarised annex to the bibliography. The contribution to the understanding and control of CE are presented, with special emphasis on the socio-economic impact, on factors affecting the maintenance of CE in the Mediterranean Region, on the epidemiological situation and control measures, on the present status of epidemiological surveillance, on the control problems in normal and emergency situations, on health education and training. Also, the justifications of combined control programmes are discussed, which may be applied only in situations of peace and well-being.

A new stable focus of canine leishmaniasis (CanL) was identified in a coastal Adriatic area of the Emilia-Romagna Region in Northern Italy. Following the first clinical cases observed starting from 1998, a seroepidemiological survey was carried out on owned dogs from two communes and on animals housed in dog pounds of the Rimini province. Sixteen out of 612 dogs (2.6%) resulted positive to the IFA test. The 16 positive dogs all came from the two communes, with seroprevalences of 3 and 6%, respectively. The autochthonous origin of the infection was confirmed in all the cases. The parasitological investigation led to the isolation and identification of the parasite as Leishmania infantum Zymodeme MON 1. An entomological survey showed that Phlebotomus perniciosus and P. perfiliewi are present in this area and that P. perfiliewi was very abundant in one collection site. The risk of the establishment of a permanent transmission of the infection in the area, previously considered CanL-free, must be analysed in view of further investigations to be extended also to neighbouring areas.

A three years survey on gastro-intestinal nematode egg output was carried out in four Alpine chamois herds (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra) from Belluno province (Italy). Data were analysed in order to detect the influence of cattle presence and chamois density on egg output, and to evaluate the stability of host-parasite relationship. As expected, variations related to the season were present, with the major peak of egg output observed in the summer. Results highlighted an unexpected inverse influence of host density on egg counts. The results are in relation to host-parasite relationship stability. Parasites seem to be able to self-regulate in the absence of parasite-induced host mortality. No effect due to cattle presence was detected.

An overview of the epidemiology human echinococcosis/hydatidosis is presented for the Emilia-Romagna region during the period 1989-1993. Data were extracted from hospital discharge reports. The description was based on 806 discharges totaling 10187 days of stay. Thirty-five percent of the patients discharged were residents outside the Emilia-Romagna region. A significant statistical correlation was identified between a high average yearly incidence of the disease and a relatively small jurisdiction of residency. No correlation was established between average yearly incidence and number and density of sheep and goats and farms and estimated dogs.

Fecal examinations of horses (Equus caballus) from studs in the province of Udine (Friuli Venezia Giulia region, east-northern Italy), carried out during two periods of the year 1993, revealed coccidian oocysts in six foals, two stallions and one mare. The species was identified as Eimeria leuckarti. This species was reported only once in Italy, more than 20 years ago (1972). For this reason, the prevalence of the parasite and the description of immature and sporulated oocysts are given.

A review is made of the socio-economic consequences of echinococcosis/hydatidosis and of the methods of economic analysis of control programmes. The main costs and benefits (both financial and social) which should be taken into consideration in evaluating health action are also examined.

The health problems which may involve farm workers are discussed and classified as: 1) diseases of mechanical origin; 2) diseases of environmental origin; 3) infection diseases (a) contracted from the environment; (b) contracted from animals); 4) social and psychological problems. The transmission of diseases from farm workers to animals has been outlined. The AA. conclude by stressing that the techniques that assure good farm profit coincide with the prevention of occupational diseases in farm workers.

The different aspects of the coexistence of man and animals in towns are discussed. The animals living in urban areas are classified as: a) Pets; b) Synanthropic, appreciated by man: c) Synanthropic, disregarded by man; d) Synanthropic, disliked by man. The detrimental effects are: a) Transmission of diseases; b) Bites, scratches and other lesions; c) Animal wastes; d) Noise; e) Use of feeds, medicines, etc.; f) Abandoned animals. The positive effects are: a) Ecological balance; b) Animals and mental health; c) Other positive aspects. A positive solution of the problem is sought which avoids both the zoomaniac and the zoophobic attitudes.

Soil samples from 127 marmot (Marmota marmota) burrows were examined for keratinophilic fungi along with 48 soil samples from adjoining areas. The occurrence of keratinophilic fungi (especially Microsporum gypseum) was significantly higher in burrow soil. A review of the literature and our results support the hypothesis that the "animalization" (i.e. the enrichment of soil with hairs, crusts and other organic matters) of the environment may create conditions suitable for the growth of keratinophilic fungi. The presence of keratinophilic fungi in alpine mountain soil was noted for the first time.

Core-particles and split-proteins were prepared by treatment with ethanol and NH4Cl of control and ricin-treated Artemia salina ribosomes. No modifications of the ricin-treated split-proteins was detected by polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis. Moreover, the split-proteins from ricin-treated ribosomes complemented control core-particles in poly(U)-directed phenylalanine polymerization. Conversely, ricin-treated core-particles remained totally inactive when supplemented with control split-proteins.