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Agriculture expansion is a major cause of habitat loss and exposure to phytochemical pollution for non-human primates. In addition to endocrine disruption, exposure to pesticides may have other sublethal physiological consequences for animals, such as generation of oxidative damage to macromolecules. In this study, we analyzed the pesticides contained in the river water across the home range of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Sebitoli area located on the Northern part of Kibale National Park (Uganda). We tested whether levels of three urinary markers of oxidative damage vary among individuals in relation to their ranging patterns, as a proxy for pesticide exposure intensity. To better characterize the foraging habitat use, the trophic level, and the energetic status of study individuals, we also quantified urinary levels of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope signatures and of C-peptide. Among the 511 pesticides screened, 18 compounds including herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides were found in the water sampled in the Western part of the home range of chimpanzees. In this area, chimpanzees used to feed on maize crops. By contrast, in the Eastern part where crop feeding was never observed, we found only seven pesticides. According to their ranging patterns and thus crop feeding frequency, the 139 urine samples collected from 43 Sebitoli chimpanzees were categorized as belonging to low, medium, and high exposure level. Chimpanzees from the high exposure zone had higher oxidative DNA damage (8-OHdG) than chimpanzees from both the low and medium exposure groups, who had similar levels of oxidative DNA damage. In addition, individuals with higher C-peptide tended to have significantly higher oxidative DNA damage and lipid peroxides. The three exposure groups had similar levels of urinary 8-isoprostanes and of urinary lipid peroxides. These results were robust for any potential confounding effect of other variables because neither age category nor sex or isotope levels were significantly associated with markers of oxidative damage. Our study points to genotoxic effects as one potential sublethal consequence of ranging in proximity of agricultural fields owing to exposure to pesticides or other unidentified sources of stress. Given our phylogenetic proximity, this information is relevant for the conservation of this species which is endangered and also sentinel for human health., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Every evening, chimpanzees build sleeping "nests" in trees. In some studied communities, individuals appear to be selective about the tree species used, which has led researchers to hypothesize whether chimpanzees prefer trees that repel troublesome insects or/and that provide comfortable and stable structures. We investigate these hypotheses, or a trade-off between both, though study of tree species preference based on their biomechanical and/or biochemical properties in the Sebitoli chimpanzee community in Kibale National Park, Uganda. The ten tree species most frequently used for nesting were compared with ten abundant in their environment but not preferred for nesting. For these 20 tree species, we determined their biomechanical and morphological characteristics such as foliar density, foliar units form (shape and size) and branch rigidity. Their spatial repellent activity, previously tested against Anopheles gambiae was incorporated into the analysis. Chimpanzees chose tree species with medium-sized and elongated foliar units, high foliar density and branch with stiffer wood. In addition, most tree species with such mechanical and morphological properties also have mosquito repellent activity. These tree properties may provide a comfortable sleeping environment enhancing sleep quality. Finally, a comparison across chimpanzee communities would be relevant to understand whether these choices are not only ecological but also cultural., (© 2023. Springer Nature Limited.)

The African tropical forests host an inestimable number of resources, including food, medicine, vegetal and animal species. Among them, chimpanzees are threatened with extinction by human activities affecting their habitats, such as forest product harvesting, and/or more directly, snaring and trafficking. We aimed to better understand the spatial distribution of these illegal activities, and the reasons for setting snares and consuming wild meat in an agricultural landscape (subsistence farming and cash crops) densely populated near a protected area (Sebitoli, Northern part of Kibale National Park, Uganda). To carry out this study, we combined GPS records of illegal activities collected with group counts (in total, n = 339 tea workers, 678 villagers, and 1885 children) and individual interviews ( n = 74 tea workers, 42 villagers, and 35 children). A quarter of illegal activities collected ( n = 1661) targeted animal resources and about 60% were recorded in specific areas (southwest and northeast) of the Sebitoli chimpanzee home range. Wild meat consumption, which is illegal in Uganda, is a relatively common practice among participants (17.1% to 54.1% of respondents depending on actor types and census methods). However, consumers declared that they eat wild meat unfrequently (0.6 to 2.8 times per year). Being a young man coming from districts contiguous to Kibale National Park particularly raises the odds of consuming wild meat. Such an analysis contributes to the understanding of wild meat hunting among traditional rural and agricultural societies from East Africa.

Background: Ticks and tick-borne pathogens significantly impact both human and animal health and therefore are of major concern to the scientific community. Knowledge of tick-borne pathogens is crucial for prescription of mitigation measures. In Africa, much research on ticks has focused on domestic animals. Little is known about ticks and their pathogens in wild habitats and wild animals like the endangered chimpanzee, our closest relative., Methods: In this study, we collected ticks in the forested habitat of a community of 100 chimpanzees living in Kibale National Park, Western Uganda, and assessed how their presence and abundance are influenced by environmental factors. We used non-invasive methods of flagging the vegetation and visual search of ticks both on human team members and in chimpanzee nests. We identified adult and nymph ticks through morphological features. Molecular techniques were used to detect and identify tick-borne piroplasmids and bacterial pathogens., Results: A total of 470 ticks were collected, which led to the identification of seven tick species: Haemaphysalis parmata (68.77%), Amblyomma tholloni (20.70%), Ixodes rasus sensu lato (7.37%), Rhipicephalus dux (1.40%), Haemaphysalis punctaleachi (0.70%), Ixodes muniensis (0.70%) and Amblyomma paulopunctatum (0.35%). The presence of ticks, irrespective of species, was influenced by temperature and type of vegetation but not by relative humidity. Molecular detection revealed the presence of at least six genera of tick-borne pathogens (Babesia, Theileria, Borrelia, Cryptoplasma, Ehrlichia and Rickettsia). The Afrotopical tick Amblyomma tholloni found in one chimpanzee nest was infected by Rickettsia sp., Conclusions: In conclusion, this study presented ticks and tick-borne pathogens in a Ugandan wildlife habitat whose potential effects on animal health remain to be elucidated., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Introduction: The extensive use of the insecticide chlorpyrifos (CPF) throughout the world has brought increased scrutiny on its environmental and health impact. CPF is a cholinergic neurotoxicant; however, exposure to low noncholinergic doses is associated with numerous neurodevelopmental effects in animal models. In this study, we aimed to assess CPF for its potential to disrupt thyroid hormone signalling and investigate the short- and long-term effects on neurodevelopment by using Xenopus laevis., Methods: The thyroid hormone (TH) disrupting potential of CPF was assessed using TH-sensitive transgenic Tg(thibz:eGFP) tadpoles. The consequences of early embryonic exposure were examined by exposing fertilized eggs for 72 h to environmentally relevant CPF concentrations (10-10 M and 10-8 M). Three endpoints were evaluated: (1) gene expression in whole embryonic brains immediately after exposure, (2) mobility and brain morphology 1 week after exposure, and (3) brain morphology and axon diameters at the end of metamorphosis (2 months after the exposure)., Results: CPF disrupted TH signalling in Tg(thibz:eGFP) tadpoles. The expression of genes klf9, cntn4, oatp1c1, and tubb2b was downregulated in response to CPF. Tadpoles exposed to CPF exhibited increased mobility and altered brain morphology compared to control tadpoles. Early embryonic exposure of CPF affected myelinated axon diameter, with exposed animals exhibiting shifted frequency distributions of myelinated axons diameters towards smaller diameters in the hindbrain of froglets., Discussion/conclusion: This study provides more evidence of the endocrine and neurodevelopment disrupting activity of CPF. Further experimental and epidemiological studies are warranted to determine the long-term consequences of early CPF exposure on brain development., (© 2022 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

The family Anaplasmataceae includes tick-borne bacteria of major public and veterinary health interest, as best illustrated by members of the genera Anaplasma and Ehrlichia. Recent epidemiological surveys have also reported on the presence of a novel putative genus in the Anaplasmataceae, Candidatus Allocryptoplasma, previously described as Candidatus Cryptoplasma in the western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus. However, the genetic diversity of Ca. Allocryptoplasma and its phylogenetic relationship with other Anaplasmataceae remain unclear. In this study, we developed a multi-locus sequence typing approach, examining the DNA sequence variation at five genes of Ca. Allocryptoplasma found in ticks. Combining this multi-locus sequence typing and genetic data available on public databases, we found that substantial genetic diversity of Ca. Allocryptoplasma is present in Ixodes, Amblyomma and Haemaphysalis spp. ticks on most continents. Further analyses confirmed that the Ca. Allocryptoplasma of ticks, the Ca. Allocryptoplasma of lizards and some Anaplasma-like bacteria of wild mice cluster into a monophyletic genus, divergent from all other genera of the family Anaplasmataceae. Candidatus Allocryptoplasma appears as a sister genus of Anaplasma and, with the genera Ehrlichia and Neoehrlichia, they form a monophyletic subgroup of Anaplasmataceae associated with tick-borne diseases. The detection of genetically distinct Ca. Allocryptoplasma in ticks of significant medical or veterinary interest supports the hypothesis that it is an emergent genus of tick-borne pathogens of general concern., (© S. Ouass et al., published by EDP Sciences, 2023.)

Background: Every evening, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) build a sleeping platform so called "nest" by intertwining branches of tree. Most of chimpanzees' communities studied have a preference for tree species in which they nest. As female mosquitoes are feeding on the blood of their host at nighttime, chimpanzees may prevent being disturbed and bitten by mosquitoes by selecting tree species having properties to repel them., Methods: To test the hypothesis that chimpanzees choose tree species for their aromatic properties, data related to 1,081 nesting trees built between 2017 and 2019 in the Sebitoli community of Kibale National Park (Uganda) were analysed. The 10 most used trees were compared to the 10 most common trees in the habitat that were not preferred for nesting. Leaves from the 20 trees species were collected and hydro-distillated to obtain essential oils and one of the by-products for behavioural bioassays against females of the African mosquito, Anopheles gambiae., Results: Sebitoli chimpanzees showed tree preferences: 10 species correspond to more than 80% of the nesting trees. Out of the essential oil obtained from the 10 nesting trees, 7 extracts for at least one concentration tested showed spatial repellency, 7 were irritant by contact and none were toxic. In the other hand, for the abundant trees in their habitat not used by chimpanzees, only 3 were repellent and 5 irritants., Discussion and Conclusion: This study contributes to evidence that chimpanzees, to avoid annoying mosquitoes, may select their nesting trees according to their repellent properties (linked to chemical parameters), a potential inspiration for human health., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Some animal species have been presumed to be purely diurnal. Yet, they show flexibility in their activity rhythm, and can occasionally be active at night. Recently, it has been suggested that chimpanzees may rarely engage in nocturnal activities in savannah forests, in contrast to the frequent nocturnal feeding of crops observed at Sebitoli, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Here we thus aimed to explore the factors that might trigger such intense nocturnal activity (e.g. harsher weather conditions during daytime, low wild food availability or higher diurnal foraging risk) in this area. We used camera-traps set over 18 km2 operating for 15 months. We report activities and group composition from records obtained either within the forest or at the forest interface with maize fields, the unique crop consumed. Maize is an attractive and accessible food source, although actively guarded by farmers, particularly during daytime. Out of the 19 156 clips collected, 1808 recorded chimpanzees. Of these, night recordings accounted for 3.3% of forest location clips, compared to 41.8% in the maize fields. Most nocturnal clips were obtained after hot days, and most often during maize season for field clips. At night within the forest, chimpanzees were travelling around twilight hours, while when at the border of the fields they were foraging on crops mostly after twilight and in smaller parties. These results suggest that chimpanzees change their activity rhythm to access cultivated resources when human presence and surveillance is lower. This survey provides evidence of behavioral plasticity in chimpanzees in response to neighboring human farming activities, and emphasizes the urgent need to work with local communities to mitigate human-wildlife conflict related to crop-feeding., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Frugivorous primates have developed several strategies to deal with wild fruit scarcity, such as modifying their activity budget or enlarging their diet. Agricultural expansion threatens primate habitats and populations (e.g., disease transmission, agrochemical exposure), but it also increases crop feeding opportunities. We aimed at understanding whether maize presence close to the natural habitat of chimpanzees, a threatened species, would lead to significant behavioral modifications. We monitored 20 chimpanzees over 37 months in Kibale National Park, Uganda, with maize gardens at the forest edge. Based on focal nest-to-nest data, we analyzed their diet, activity budget, and energy balance depending on wild fruit and maize availability. We found that the Sebitoli area is a highly nutritive habitat for chimpanzees, with large and caloric wild fruits available all year long. The chimpanzees opportunistically consume maize and exploit it by resting less during maize season. However, no significant variation was found in daily paths and energy expenditures according to maize availability. No behavioral or energy modification was observed regarding wild resources either. Despite the availability of nutritious domestic resources, chimpanzees still exploit wild fruits and do not limit their movements. Thus, their contribution to seed dispersal and forest regeneration in this area is not affected.

Wildlife is increasingly exposed to environmental pollution, but data illustrating to what extent this exposure can impact health and survival of endangered species is missing. In humans, hair matrix analysis is a reliable tool for assessing cumulative exposure to organic pollutants such as pesticides but has rarely been used in other primates for this purpose. LC/MS-MS and GC/MS-MS multi-residue methods were used to screen the presence of 152 organic pollutants and their metabolites belonging to 21 different chemical families in hair samples from our closest relative, the chimpanzee. Samples were collected from 20 wild chimpanzees in Sebitoli, Kibale National Park, Uganda and 9 captive chimpanzees in the Réserve Africaine de Sigean, France. In total, 90 chemicals were detected, 60 in wild chimpanzees and 79 in captive chimpanzees. The median concentrations of detected chemicals in captive individuals were significantly higher than those in wild chimpanzees. Hair from the captive individuals at RAS was sampled a second time after 6 months in an environment of reduced exposure to these pollutants (diet of organic food, decreased use of plastic food and water containers). The number of chemicals detected in captive chimpanzees reduced from 79 to 63, and their concentrations were also significantly reduced. In the present study we report for the first time the use of hair analysis to detect organic pollutants in primate hair. We conclude that both wild and captive chimpanzees are exposed to a large range of different chemicals through their diet. Our study provides surprising and alarming evidence that besides the direct threats of poaching, deforestation and diseases, wild chimpanzees might be endangered by indirect consequences of anthropic activities. As chimpanzees are our closest relatives, our results should be considered as an alert for human health as well., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Despite a widespread aversion towards faeces and urine, animal excreta are used in traditional medicine in many countries since centuries, but records are scattered and few therapeutic uses have been accurately documented while in the current context of emerging zoonoses such records may be of major interest., Methodology: In this study, we investigated the therapeutic uses that mahouts in Xayaboury province, Lao PDR make of elephant urine and faeces as well as of the brood chamber that beetles (Heliocopris dominus) fashion from elephant dung. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with mahouts on elephant diet, health problems and responses to disease, andwhether they use elephant products. Data were supplemented by interviews with traditional healers., Results: Seven respondents reported the use of elephant urine in ethnoveterinary care for elephants and in human medicine in case of diabetes and otitis. 25 respondents reported therapeutic use of elephant faeces (EF) and elephant dung beetle brood chambers. The major indications are gastrointestinal and skin problems. Macerations or decoctions are drunk or used externally as a lotion. The mahouts attribute the therapeutic effectiveness of EFs to their content which includes the remains of many species from the elephant diet which they consider to be medicinal., Discussion: The indications of these uses are consistent with pharmacological and clinical studies highlighting the properties of different animals' urine and faeces and their curative potential tested in vivo. The acknowledgement by the mahouts of medicinal properties of elephant faecal bolus contrasts with the rare justifications of animal material use recorded in zootherapeutic studies, which falls within the symbolic domain. However, numerous studies highlight the preponderant role of the microbiota in physiological processes, raising the hypothesis of a curative action of EF, by rebalancing the user's microbiota., Conclusion: The therapeutic uses of EF preparations despite their possible curative properties are a potential source of zoonotic transmission from elephants to humans. In the current context of globalisation of trade which favours the emergence of zoonoses and in relation with the issue of One Health, it becomes crucial to further document the zootherapeutic practices to prevent emerging diseases. As elephants and local related ethnoethological knowledge are threatened, documenting them is urgent to contribute to their preservation., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Characterizing animal dispersal patterns and the rational behind individuals' transfer choices is a long-standing question of interest in evolutionary biology. In wild western gorillas ( Gorilla gorilla ), a one-male polygynous species, previous genetic findings suggested that, when dispersing, females might favor groups with female kin to promote cooperation, resulting in higher-than-expected within-group female relatedness. The extent of male dispersal remains unclear with studies showing conflicting results. To investigate male and female dispersal patterns and extragroup paternity, we analyzed long-term field observations, including female spatial proximity data, together with genetic data (10 autosomal microsatellites) on individuals from a unique set of four habituated western gorilla groups, and four additional extragroup males (49 individuals in total). The majority of offspring (25 of 27) were sired by the group male. For two offspring, evidence for extragroup paternity was found. Contrarily to previous findings, adult females were not significantly more related within groups than across groups. Consistently, adult female relatedness within groups did not correlate with their spatial proximity inferred from behavioral data. Adult females were similarly related to adult males from their group than from other groups. Using R ST statistics, we found significant genetic structure and a pattern of isolation by distance, indicating limited dispersal in this species. Comparing relatedness among females and among males revealed that males disperse farer than females, as expected in a polygamous species. Our study on habituated western gorillas shed light on the dispersal dynamics and reproductive behavior of this polygynous species and challenge some of the previous results based on unhabituated groups., Competing Interests: The authors declare to have no conflicts of interest., (© 2021 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The link between dietary antioxidants and oxidative status has been studied extensively in humans. Surprisingly, comparative data are not available from closely related species, such as chimpanzees, which evolved in environments characterized by strong fluctuations in the availability and quality of vegetable food sources. We tested the hypothesis that an abrupt decrease in dietary antioxidants would increase oxidative damages in captive chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ), while a rapid increase in antioxidant intake would decrease oxidative damages accrued while on the low-antioxidant diet. An abrupt decline of dietary antioxidants increased urinary levels of lipid peroxides and of oxidative DNA damage but not of 8-isoprostanes. In contrast, an increased intake of dietary antioxidants did not affect the oxidative status. Chimpanzees that were both older and with a higher dominance rank had lower urinary levels of lipid peroxides and of DNA damage as compared with younger chimpanzees. Neither individual sex nor proportion of time being groomed explained any variation in all three markers of oxidative status. Finally, we found significant within-individual repeatability of all markers of oxidative status over the course of the experiment, suggesting a significant contribution of individual history to molding oxidative status. Our results show that antioxidant intake plays a nonnegligible role in the regulation of oxidative status homeostasis in our closest relatives, the chimpanzees. Our work also suggests that rapid short-term increases in antioxidant intake might not have the desired immediate impact on oxidative status, such as in the case of clinical interventions or training programs.

It is important to determine the sex of elephants from their samples-faeces from the field or seized ivory-for forensic reasons or to understand population demography and genetic structure. Molecular sexing methods developed in the last two decades have often shown limited efficiency, particularly in terms of sensitivity and specificity, due to the degradation of DNA in these samples. These limitations have also prevented their use with ancient DNA samples of elephants or mammoths. Here we propose a novel TaqMan-MGB qPCR assay to address these difficulties. We designed it specifically to allow the characterization of the genetic sex for highly degraded samples of all elephantine taxa (elephants and mammoths). In vitro experiments demonstrated a high level of sensitivity and low contamination risks. We applied this assay in two actual case studies where it consistently recovered the right genotype for specimens of known sex a priori. In the context of a modern conservation survey of African elephants, it allowed determining the sex for over 99% of fecal samples. In a paleogenetic analysis of woolly mammoths, it produced a robust hypothesis of the sex for over 65% of the specimens out of three PCR replicates. This simple, rapid, and cost-effective procedure makes it readily applicable to large sample sizes.

While road network expansion is crucial for economic development, it can cause a notable disturbance of fauna, especially in protected area in terms of habitat fragmentation, risk of collision, and also indirect threat such as pollution. In this study, we monitored the 4.6-km long tarmac road crossing the Kibale National Park in Uganda, home to a rich variety of wild species including the endangered chimpanzees. We evaluated the effects of collisions and pollution, as well as the impact of the renovation process in terms of disturbance and the mitigation measures deployed. This survey reports the death of 24 wild animals killed by cars, including two chimpanzees. The atmospheric concentrations of O 3 , NO 2 , SO 2 , and BTEX did not exceed recommended limits. More than 5000 plastic bottles were collected along the road within 4 months, and for the first time, the presence of BPA and BPS was detected in the hairs of wild chimpanzees. The road bisecting the Kibale National Park poses a high danger in terms of traffic and an underestimated risk related to plastic pollution. Measures (signpost, speed bumps) should be urgently deployed to decrease the risk posed by the renovated road for emblematic species such as chimpanzees, which are crucial for tourism and economy in Uganda.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: To what extent has animal observation contributed to the development of human pharmacopeias? We approach this question here through the study of mahouts' knowledge regarding the responses by elephants to their health problems, and the human medicinal uses of plants and the care of domestic animals that result from their observations., Materials and Methods: 32 mahouts were interviewed in Thongmyxay district and 28 at the Elephant Conservation Center in the province of Xayabury. Interviews focused on the elephants' diet, health problems, plant items they consume in particular physiological or pathological contexts and the treatments that mahouts provide them. For each plant mentioned, the part of the plant consumed and mode of preparation and administration if used by mahouts were recorded. Species samples were then collected and later identified by specialists., Results: 114 species were recorded as being consumed by elephants during interviews with mahouts and forest outings with them to collect samples. Twenty species were identified as used by elephants in particular pathological conditions or physiological states. According to interviewed mahouts, the consumption of certain plants improves the health of the elephant. We observed clear convergences between the observations interpreted by the mahouts as self-medication behaviour from elephants and their own medicinal practices (for human and veterinary purposes)., Conclusion: Beyond a mere reproduction of elephant self-medication behaviours observed, the human or veterinary medicinal cares derived from these observations are the result of complex arrangements integrating all available medicinal and conceptual resources into elaborate preparations. We recommend that mahouts' knowledge about traditional medicinal care given to elephants be further compiled, as it could have a beneficial impact on veterinary health care provided in elephant resorts and elephants' well-being., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Pesticides are used worldwide with potential harmful effects on both fauna and flora. The Kibale National Park in Uganda, a site renowned for its biodiversity is surrounded by tea, banana and eucalyptus plantations as well as maize fields and small farms. We previously showed presence of pesticides with potential endocrine disruptive effects in the vicinity. To further investigate the water pollution linked to agricultural pressure in this protected area, we implemented a complementary monitoring strategy based on: analytical chemistry, effects based methods and the deployment of Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers (POCIS). Chemical analysis of the POCIS extracts revealed the presence of 13 pesticides: carbofuran, DEET, 2.4-D amine, carbaryl, ametryn, isoproturon, metolachlor, terbutryn, dimethoate, imidacloprid, picaridin, thiamethoxam, carbendazim, with the first three being present in the largest quantities. Water samples collected at the POCIS sampling sites exhibited thyroid and estrogen axis disrupting activities in vivo, in addition to developmental and behaviour effects on Xenopus laevis tadpoles model. Based on our observations, for the health of local human and wildlife populations, further monitoring as well as actions to reduce agrochemical use should be considered in the Kibale National Park and in regions exposed to similar conditions., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Primate populations are in decline, mainly affected by agriculture leading to habitat loss, fragmentation but also chemical pollution. Kibale National Park (Uganda), Sebitoli forest, surrounded by tea and crop fields, is the home range of chimpanzees presenting congenital facial dysplasia. This study aimed to identify to what extent the same phenotypical features are observed in baboons (Papio anubis) of this area., Methods: A total of 25 390 clips recorded by 14 camera traps between January 2017 and April 2018 were analyzed., Results: We identified 30 immature and adult baboons of both sexes with nose and lip deformities. They were more frequently observed in the northwestern part of the area., Conclusions: A possible effect of pesticides used in crops at the border of their habitat is suspected to alter the embryonic development. This study emphasizes the importance of non-invasive methods to detect health problems in wild primates that can act as sentinels for human health., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Prenatal exposure to environmental endocrine disruptors can affect development and induce irreversible abnormalities in both humans and wildlife. The northern part of Kibale National Park, a mid-altitude rainforest in western Uganda, is largely surrounded by industrial tea plantations and wildlife using this area (Sebitoli) must cope with proximity to human populations and their activities. The chimpanzees and baboons in this area raid crops (primarily maize) in neighboring gardens. Sixteen young individuals of the 66 chimpanzees monitored (25%) exhibit abnormalities including reduced nostrils, cleft lip, limb deformities, reproductive problems and hypopigmentation. Each pathology could have a congenital component, potentially exacerbated by environmental factors. In addition, at least six of 35 photographed baboons from a Sebitoli troop (17%) have similar severe nasal deformities. Our inquiries in villages and tea factories near Sebitoli revealed use of eight pesticides (glyphosate, cypermethrin, profenofos, mancozeb, metalaxyl, dimethoate, chlorpyrifos and 2,4-D amine). Chemical analysis of samples collected from 2014 to 2016 showed that mean levels of pesticides in fresh maize stems and seeds, soils, and river sediments in the vicinity of the chimpanzee territory exceed recommended limits. Notably, excess levels were found for total DDT and its metabolite pp'-DDE and for chlorpyrifos in fresh maize seeds and in fish from Sebitoli. Imidacloprid was detected in coated maize seeds planted at the edge the forest and in fish samples from the Sebitoli area, while no pesticides were detected in fish from central park areas. Since some of these pesticides are thyroid hormone disruptors, we postulate that excessive pesticide use in the Sebitoli area may contribute to facial dysplasia in chimpanzees and baboons through this endocrine pathway. Chimpanzees are considered as endangered by IUCN and besides their intrinsic value and status as closely related to humans, they have major economic value in Uganda via ecotourism. Identifying and limiting potential threats to their survival such be a conservation priority., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Phylogenetic and geographic proximities between humans and apes pose a risk of zoonotic transmission of pathogens. Bonobos (Pan paniscus) of the Bolobo Territory, Democratic Republic of the Congo, live in a fragmented forest-savanna mosaic setting, a marginal habitat for this species used to living in dense forests. Human activities in the forest have increased the risk of contacts between humans and bonobos. Over 21 months (September 2010-October 2013), we monitored intestinal parasites in bonobo (n = 273) and in human (n = 79) fecal samples to acquire data on bonobo parasitology and to assess the risk of intestinal helminth transmission between these hosts. Coproscopy, DNA amplification, and sequencing of stored dried feces and larvae were performed to identify helminths. Little difference was observed in intestinal parasites of bonobos in this dryer habitat compared to those living in dense forests. Although Strongylids, Enterobius sp., and Capillaria sp. were found in both humans and bonobos, the species were different between the hosts according to egg size or molecular data. Thus, no evidence of helminth transmission between humans and bonobos was found. However, because humans and this threatened species share the same habitat, it is essential to continue to monitor this risk.

Design: Observations of wild chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) were conducted in Kibale National Park, Uganda, at the sites of Sebitoli and Ngogo., Results: We report the first two cases of cleft lip in wild chimpanzees. Additionally, some other chimpanzees in the Sebitoli community show facial dysplasia and congenital anomalies, such as patches of depigmented hairs and limb defects., Conclusions: Cleft lip has been documented in several species of nonhuman primates, but much remains unknown about the occurrence of cleft lip and cleft palate in great apes, probably because such malformations are rare, wild apes are difficult to monitor and observe, and severe cases associated with cleft palates render suckling impossible and lead to early death of infants. The genetic basis of such defects in great apes warrants investigation, as does the possibility that environmental toxins contribute to their etiology in Kibale in ways that could affect humans as well.

Background: Nodular Oesophagostomum genus nematodes are a major public health concern in some African regions because they can be lethal to humans. Their relatively high prevalence in people has been described in Uganda recently. While non-human primates also harbor Oesophagostomum spp., the epidemiology of this oesophagostomosis and the role of these animals as reservoirs of the infection in Eastern Africa are not yet well documented., Methodology/principal Findings: The present study aimed to investigate Oesophagostomum infection in terms of parasite species diversity, prevalence and load in three non-human primates (Pan troglodytes, Papio anubis, Colobus guereza) and humans living in close proximity in a forested area of Sebitoli, Kibale National Park (KNP), Uganda. The molecular phylogenetic analyses provided the first evidence that humans living in the Sebitoli area harbored O. stephanostomum, a common species in free-ranging chimpanzees. Chimpanzees were also infected by O. bifurcum, a common species described in human populations throughout Africa. The recently described Oesophagostomum sp. found in colobine monkeys and humans and which was absent from baboons in the neighboring site of Kanyawara in KNP (10 km from Sebitoli), was only found in baboons. Microscopic analyses revealed that the infection prevalence and parasite load in chimpanzees were significantly lower in Kanyawara than in Sebitoli, an area more impacted by human activities at its borders., Conclusions/significance: Three different Oesophagostomum species circulate in humans and non-human primates in the Sebitoli area and our results confirm the presence of a new genotype of Oesophagostomum recently described in Uganda. The high spatiotemporal overlap between humans and chimpanzees in the studied area coupled with the high infection prevalence among chimpanzees represent factors that could increase the risk of transmission for O. stephanostomum between the two primate species. Finally, the importance of local-scale research for zoonosis risk management is important because environmental disturbance and species contact can differ, leading to different parasitological profiles between sites that are close together within the same forest patches.

Habituation is the term used to describe acceptance by wild animals of a human observer as a neutral element in their environment. Among primates, the process takes from a few days for Galago spp. to several years for African apes. There are also intraspecies differences reflecting differences in habitat, home range, and ape-human relationship history. Here, we present the first study of the process of bonobo habituation in a fragmented habitat, a forest-savanna mosaic in the community-based conservation area led by the Congolese nongovernmental organization Mbou-Mon-Tour, Democratic Republic of the Congo. In this area, local people use the forest almost every day for traditional activities but avoid bonobos because of a traditional taboo. Because very few flight reactions were observed during habituation, we focused on quantitative parameters to assess the development of ape tolerance and of the tracking efficiency of observer teams. During the 18-month study period (May 2012-October 2013), 4043 h (319 days) were spent in the forest and bonobos were observed for a total of 405 h (196 contacts on 134 days). The average contact duration was stable over time (124 min), but the minimal distance during a contact decreased with habituation effort. Moreover, bonobo location and tracking efficiency, daily ratio of contact time to habituation effort, and the number of observations at ground level were positively correlated with habituation effort. Our observations suggest that bonobos become habituated relatively rapidly. These results are discussed in relation to the habitat type, ape species, and the local sociocultural context of villagers. The habituation process involves changes in ape behavior toward observers and also more complex interactions concerning the ecosystem, including the building of an efficient local team. Before starting a habituation process, knowledge of the human sociocultural context is essential to assess the balance between risks and benefits.

Despite the spread of road infrastructures throughout Africa to support regional development, industry, and tourism, few studies have examined how wild animals adapt their behavior and ecology in road-forest ecotones. Indeed, while numerous studies have demonstrated chimpanzee adaptability in anthropogenic landscapes, none have examined the effects of asphalted highways on wild chimpanzee behaviors. In a 29-month survey, we assessed the dangers posed by an asphalted road crossing the Sebitoli area of Kibale National Park (Uganda). We analyzed 122 individual chimpanzee crossings. Although the asphalted road represents a substantial threat to crossing animals (89 motorized vehicles per hour use this road and individuals of six different primate species were killed in 1 year), chimpanzees took into account this risk. More than 90% of the individuals looked right and left before and while crossing. Chimpanzees crossed in small subgroups (average 2.7 subgroups of 2.1 individuals per crossing event). Whole parties crossed more rapidly when chimpanzees were more numerous in the crossing groups. The individuals most vulnerable to the dangers of road crossing (females with dependents, immature, and severely injured individuals) crossed less frequently compared with non-vulnerable individuals (lone and healthy adolescents and adults). Moreover, healthy adult males, who were the most frequent crossing individuals, led progressions more frequently when crossing the road than when climbing or descending feeding trees. Almost 20% of the individuals that crossed paid attention to conspecifics by checking on them or waiting for them while crossing. These observations are relevant for our understanding of adaptive behavior among chimpanzees in human-impacted habitats. Further investigations are needed to better evaluate the effects of busy roads on adolescent female dispersal and on their use of territories. Mitigation measures (e.g., bridges, underpasses, reduced speed limits, speed-bumps, signposts, or police controls) should be established in this area., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

In a rapidly changing landscape highly impacted by anthropogenic activities, the great apes are facing new challenges to coexist with humans. For chimpanzee communities inhabiting encroached territories, not bordered by rival conspecifics but by human agricultural fields, such boundaries are risky areas. To investigate the hypothesis that they use specific strategies for incursions out of the forest into maize fields to prevent the risk of detection by humans guarding their field, we carried out video recordings of chimpanzees at the edge of the forest bordered by a maize plantation in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Contrary to our expectations, large parties are engaged in crop-raids, including vulnerable individuals such as females with clinging infants. More surprisingly chimpanzees were crop-raiding during the night. They also stayed longer in the maize field and presented few signs of vigilance and anxiety during these nocturnal crop-raids. While nocturnal activities of chimpanzees have been reported during full moon periods, this is the first record of frequent and repeated nocturnal activities after twilight, in darkness. Habitat destruction may have promoted behavioural adjustments such as nocturnal exploitation of open croplands.

At least 10% of the Sebitoli chimpanzee community of the Kibale National Park (Uganda) present a characteristic facial phenotype with flattened nose, reduced nostrils, and concave mid-face. Affected individuals do not present skin lesions, and also young infants are affected. We suggest, therefore, a congenital origin of this defect., (© 2014 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Landscape patterns and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) densities in Kibale National Park show important variation among communities that are geographically close to one another (from 1.5 to 5.1 chimpanzees/km2). Anthropogenic activities inside the park (past logging activities, current encroachment) and outside its limits (food and cash crops) may impact the amount and distribution of food resources for chimpanzees (frugivorous species) and their spatial distribution within the park. Spatial and temporal patterns of fruit availability were recorded over 18 months at Sebitoli (a site of intermediate chimpanzee density and higher anthropic pressure) with the aim of understanding the factors explaining chimpanzee density there, in comparison to results from two other sites, also in Kibale: Kanyawara (low chimpanzee density) and Ngogo (high density, and furthest from Sebitoli). Because of the post-logging regenerating status of the forest in Sebitoli and Kanyawara, smaller basal area (BA) of fruiting trees most widely consumed by the chimpanzees in Kanyawara and Sebitoli was expected compared to Ngogo (not logged commercially). Due to the distance between sites, spatial and temporal fruit abundance in Sebitoli was expected to be more similar to Kanyawara than to Ngogo. While species functional classes consumed by Sebitoli chimpanzees (foods eaten during periods of high or low fruit abundance) differ from the two other sites, Sebitoli is very similar to Kanyawara in terms of land-cover and consumed species. Among feeding trees, Ficus species are particularly important resources for chimpanzees at Sebitoli, where their basal area is higher than at Kanywara or Ngogo. Ficus species provided a relatively consistent supply of food for chimpanzees throughout the year, and we suggest that this could help to explain the unusually high density of chimpanzees in such a disturbed site.

Neoboutonia macrocalyx is used by people in south western Uganda around Kibale National Park in the treatment of malaria. Phytochemical investigation on the leaves of this plant led to the isolation of nine cycloartane triterpenes (1-9) and one phenanthrene; 7-methoxy-2,8 dimethyl-9,10-dihydrophenantherene-3,6 diol (10) along with three known compounds which included 22-de-O-acetyl-26-deoxyneoboutomellerone (11), mellerin B (12) and 6-hydroxystigmast-4-en-3-one (13). The chemical structures of the compounds were established mainly through a combination of spectroscopic techniques. The isolated compounds were evaluated for antiplasmodial activity against the chloroquine-resistant FcB1/Colombia strain of Plasmodium falciparum and for cytotoxicity against the KB (nasopharyngeal epidermoid carcinoma) and MRC-5 (human diploid embryonic lung) cells. Seven out of 13 compounds exhibited good antiplasmodial activity with IC50 of ⩽5μg/ml with two compounds exhibiting low cytotoxicity and five compounds having significant cytotoxicity., (Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

In primates, the perception of bitter taste may be an essential mechanism for avoiding the ingestion of bitter, and often toxic, substances. Bitterness sensitivity varies across the different primate species and, for bitter thioure substances (e.g., phenylthiocarbamide-PTC), within species. Primates respond to bitterness by displaying aversive affective reactions, and whether these serve for conspecifics as information on the taste of food is still unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the response to two bitter substances (quinine and PTC) in 11 primate species (N = 29 individuals) hosted at the Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes, in relation to their main diet tendency and weaning age. We tested primate reactions to bitterness with a two-bottle method. The study individuals showed a strong aversion to bitter taste, minimizing consumption of both bitter solutions. All of the individuals were PTC-taster phenotypes, but the degrees of sensitivity to PTC varied among the individuals. Across-species comparisons revealed that whereas the degree of frugivory of the species had a negative effect on the consumption of bitter solutions by the individuals, a later weaning age seems to be a better predictor for the occurrence of aversive affective reactions. Although the low sample size does not allow for excluding interindividual variability, our results support the hypothesis that affective reactions to bitterness may be trustworthy information for conspecifics during the learning process. Thus, the evolution of the appropriate perceiver systems to convert affective displays into true affective signals could be a shared trait among human and nonhuman primates.

Background: Malaria parasites (Plasmodium sp.), including new species, have recently been discovered as low grade mixed infections in three wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) sampled randomly in Kibale National Park, Uganda. This suggested a high prevalence of malaria infection in this community. The clinical course of malaria in chimpanzees and the species of the vectors that transmit their parasites are not known. The fact that these apes display a specific behaviour in which they consume plant parts of low nutritional value but that contain compounds with anti-malarial properties suggests that the apes health might be affected by the parasite. The avoidance of the night-biting anopheline mosquitoes is another potential behavioural adaptation that would lead to a decrease in the number of infectious bites and consequently malaria., Methods: Mosquitoes were collected over two years using suction-light traps and yeast-generated CO(2) traps at the nesting and the feeding sites of two chimpanzee communities in Kibale National Park. The species of the female Anopheles caught were then determined and the presence of Plasmodium was sought in these insects by PCR amplification., Results: The mosquito catches yielded a total of 309 female Anopheles specimens, the only known vectors of malaria parasites of mammalians. These specimens belonged to 10 species, of which Anopheles implexus, Anopheles vinckei and Anopheles demeilloni dominated. Sensitive DNA amplification techniques failed to detect any Plasmodium-positive Anopheles specimens. Humidity and trap height influenced the Anopheles capture success, and there was a negative correlation between nest numbers and mosquito abundance. The anopheline mosquitoes were also less diverse and numerous in sites where chimpanzees were nesting as compared to those where they were feeding., Conclusions: These observations suggest that the sites where chimpanzees build their nests every night might be selected, at least in part, in order to minimize contact with anopheline mosquitoes, which might lead to a reduced risk in acquiring malaria infections.

Certain toxic plants are beneficial for health if small amounts are ingested infrequently and in a specific context of illness. Among our closest living relatives, chimpanzees are found to consume plants with pharmacological properties. Providing insight on the origins of human self-medication, this study investigates the role social systems and physiology (namely gut specialization) play on learning mechanisms involved in the consumption of unusual and potentially bioactive foods by two great ape species. We collected data from a community of 41-44 wild chimpanzees in Uganda (11 months, 2008), and a group of 11-13 wild western gorillas in Central African Republic (10 months, 2008-2009). During feeding, we recorded food consumed, its availability, and social interactions (including observers watching conspecifics and the observers' subsequent activity). Unusual food consumption in chimpanzees was twice higher than in gorillas. Additionally chimpanzees relied more on social information with vertical knowledge transmission on unusual foods by continually acquiring information during their life through mostly observing the fittest (pre-senescent) adults. In contrast, in gorillas observational learning primarily occurred between related immatures, showing instead the importance of horizontal knowledge transmission. As chimpanzees' guts are physiologically less specialized than gorillas (more capable of detoxifying harmful compounds), unusual-food consumption may be more risky for chimpanzees and linked to reasons other than nutrition (like self-medication). Our results show that differences in sociality and physiology between the two species may influence mechanisms that discriminate between plants for nutrition and plants with potential therapeutic dietary components. We conclude that self-medication may have appeared in our ancestors in association with high social tolerance and lack of herbivorous gut specialization., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Among factors affecting animal health, environmental influences may directly or indirectly impact host nutritional condition, fecundity, and their degree of parasitism. Our closest relatives, the great apes, are all endangered and particularly sensitive to infectious diseases. Both chimpanzees and western gorillas experience large seasonal variations in fruit availability but only western gorillas accordingly show large changes in their degree of frugivory. The aim of this study is to investigate and compare factors affecting health (through records of clinical signs, urine, and faecal samples) of habituated wild ape populations: a community (N = 46 individuals) of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Kanyawara, Kibale National Park (Uganda), and a western gorilla (G. gorilla) group (N = 13) in Bai Hokou in the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park (Central African Republic). Ape health monitoring was carried out in the wet and dry seasons (chimpanzees: July-December 2006; gorillas: April-July 2008 and December 2008-February 2009). Compared to chimpanzees, western gorillas were shown to have marginally greater parasite diversity, higher prevalence and intensity of both parasite and urine infections, and lower occurrence of diarrhea and wounds. Parasite infections (prevalence and load), but not abnormal urine parameters, were significantly higher during the dry season of the study period for western gorillas, who thus appeared more affected by the large temporal changes in the environment in comparison to chimpanzees. Infant gorillas were the most susceptible among all the age/sex classes (of both apes) having much more intense infections and urine blood concentrations, again during the dry season. Long term studies are needed to confirm the influence of seasonal factors on health and parasitism of these great apes. However, this study suggest climate change and forest fragmentation leading to potentially larger seasonal fluctuations of the environment may affect patterns of ape parasitism and further exacerbate health impacts on great ape populations that live in highly seasonal habitats.

Six great ape species (chimpanzees, bonobos, Western gorillas, Eastern gorillas, Sumatran orangutans and Bornean orangutans) live in tropical forests of Africa and South-East Asia. Their habitat, severely threatened by deforestation, contains a vast chemical and biological diversity. During the last decade, we have isolated and identified novel pharmacologically active compounds from plants used by wild chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Our continuous observations over the last 12 years confirm that chimpanzees, when sick, may ingest plant material that are not generally eaten, supporting the existence of self-medication among great apes. Knowledge of great-ape diseases, and the medicinal resources of tropical forests, may be improved by preserving and studying our closest relatives in their natural habitat.

Nematodes of the genus Oesophagostomum are common intestinal parasites found in cattle, pigs and primates. They can cause severe illness, resulting from the formation of granulomas, caseous lesions and abscesses in the intestinal wall. Human oesophagostomosis is endemic in northern Ghana and Togo. In these regions, epidemiological investigations have been conducted to determine the biological characteristics, transmission dynamics and optimal management of clinical cases. Nodular oesophagostomosis has also been described in free-ranging chimpanzees and gorillas. Clinical signs associated with nodules have been observed in great apes raised in sanctuaries, while the health status of their wild counterparts does not seem to be significantly affected It has been suggested that some nonhuman primates may act as reservoirs for human oesophagostomosis. In Ghana, identification of genetic differences among Oesophagostomum nematodes infecting different primate hosts suggests that oesophagostomosis is a rare zoonosis. In Uganda, where the situation is diferent, cross-infection is probably more frequent.

Malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp) that infect great apes are very poorly documented Malaria was first described in gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutans in the early 20th century, but most studies were confined to a handful of chimpanzees in the 1930-1950s and a few orangutans in the 1970s. The three Plasmodium species described in African great apes were very similar to those infecting humans. The most extensively studied was P reichenowi, because of its close phylogenetic relation to P. falciparum, the predominant parasite in Africa and the most dangerous for humans. In the last three years, independent molecular studies of various chimpanzee and gorilla populations have revealed an unexpected diversity in the Plasmodium species they harbor, which are also phylogenetically close to P falciparum. In addition, cases of non human primate infection by human malaria parasites have been observed. These observations shed fresh light on the origin and evolutionary history of P. falciparum and provide a unique opportunity to probe the biological specificities of this major human parasite.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: The study was done to establish medicinal plants used in the treatment of various diseases by the people in the Northern sector of Kibale National Park in western Uganda. It was also aimed at establishing the plant parts used and the mode of preparation of remedies. These plants create a basis for phytochemical evaluation which can lead to the discovery of biologically active compounds that can be used as starting materials in the development of new drugs targeting selected diseases such as malaria., Materials and Methods: The required information was obtained using open interviews, semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and transect walks., Results: Different medicinal plants (131 species) distributed over 55 families were observed to be used by the local communities around the Northern sector of Kibale National Park. The plants as reported in this paper are used to treat 43 physical illnesses/diseases. The most used parts of the plants are the leaves. Water is the main medium used for the preparation of the remedies which are mostly administered orally., Conclusion: The people in the study area have a rich heritage of traditional plants that are used in the health care system to treat diseases. These medicinal plants have contributed significantly to several disease therapies. The most common diseases treated are malaria and cough, which are mostly treated by Vernonia amygdalina Del. and Albizia coriaria Welw. respectively. The main sources of medicinal plants include bush land, home gardens, grasslands, and the forest., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Aim of the Study: In Uganda, malaria is the most common disease and Ugandan people largely rely on traditional medicine. In this context, we carried out an ethnobotanical study on the Kiohima village, located close to the Kibale National Park in South-Western Uganda and investigated in vitro the antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of selected medicinal plants., Materials and Methods: Seventy-five plants-using adults (men and women) were interviewed to find out their plant use. From these information, 48 plants used in traditional medicine were identified and according to their reported uses and to bibliographic data, several parts of 28 plants (leaves, barks, roots), were selected and collected for biological evaluations. These samples were dried, extracted with ethyl acetate and the crude extracts were assayed for in vitro antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities at 10 μg/mL., Results: One third of the screened plants showed a significant antiplasmodial activity with inhibition greater than 50% at 10 μg/mL., Conclusion: These results may indicate a possible explanation of the use of some medicinal plant against malaria in the village of Kiohima and have also allowed to highlight a plant with potent antimalarial activity: Citropsis articulata root barks., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Great apes sometimes feed on items of low nutritional value with bioactive secondary compounds. These molecules may be toxic and neophobia is presumed to be an essential factor in avoiding the ingestion of noxious items. The aim of this study is to investigate, in captive orangutans, individual and social learning involved in the discovery and ingestion of new items. We presented novel aromatic plants - 11 fresh plants and 4 infused plants - to 4 captive weaned Bornean orangutans, both under isolated and group conditions, and recorded their behaviour and interactions between group members. All animals tasted by nibbling or ingested most of the plants presented. Regardless of the experimental condition, individual responses did not vary visibly across the sessions, despite numerous close observations, and food transfers between individuals were observed. Our results suggest that a low level of neophobia and a strong propensity to look to conspecifics for information allow Bornean orangutans to expand their diet after weaning. Our results also provide some evidence that olfaction is a key sense in determining food edibility based on previous experience., (Copyright © 2011 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

This study focused on Oeosophagostomum sp., and more especially on O. bifurcum, as a parasite that can be lethal to humans and is widespread among humans and monkeys in endemic regions, but has not yet been documented in apes. Its epidemiology and the role played by non-human primates in its transmission are still poorly understood. O. stephanostomum was the only species diagnosed so far in chimpanzees. Until recently, O. bifurcum was assumed to have a high zoonotic potential, but recent findings tend to demonstrate that O. bifurcum of non-human primates and humans might be genetically distinct. As the closest relative to human beings, and a species living in spatial proximity to humans in the field site studied, Pan troglodytes is thus an interesting host to investigate. Recently, a role for chimpanzees in the emergence of HIV and malaria in humans has been documented. In the framework of our long-term health monitoring of wild chimpanzees from Kibale National Park in Western Uganda, we analysed 311 samples of faeces. Coproscopy revealed that high-ranking males are more infected than other individuals. These chimpanzees are also the more frequent crop-raiders. Results from PCR assays conducted on larvae and dried faeces also revealed that O. stephanostomum as well as O. bifurcum are infecting chimpanzees, both species co-existing in the same individuals. Because contacts between humans and great apes are increasing with ecotourism and forest fragmentation in areas of high population density, this paper emphasizes that the presence of potential zoonotic parasites should be viewed as a major concern for public health. Investigations of the parasite status of people living around the park or working inside as well as sympatric non-human primates should be planned, and further research might reveal this as a promising aspect of efforts to reinforce measures against crop-raiding.

The origin of Plasmodium falciparum, the etiological agent of the most dangerous forms of human malaria, remains controversial. Although investigations of homologous parasites in African Apes are crucial to resolve this issue, studies have been restricted to a chimpanzee parasite related to P. falciparum, P. reichenowi, for which a single isolate was available until very recently. Using PCR amplification, we detected Plasmodium parasites in blood samples from 18 of 91 individuals of the genus Pan, including six chimpanzees (three Pan troglodytes troglodytes, three Pan t. schweinfurthii) and twelve bonobos (Pan paniscus). We obtained sequences of the parasites' mitochondrial genomes and/or from two nuclear genes from 14 samples. In addition to P. reichenowi, three other hitherto unknown lineages were found in the chimpanzees. One is related to P. vivax and two to P. falciparum that are likely to belong to distinct species. In the bonobos we found P. falciparum parasites whose mitochondrial genomes indicated that they were distinct from those present in humans, and another parasite lineage related to P. malariae. Phylogenetic analyses based on this diverse set of Plasmodium parasites in African Apes shed new light on the evolutionary history of P. falciparum. The data suggested that P. falciparum did not originate from P. reichenowi of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), but rather evolved in bonobos (Pan paniscus), from which it subsequently colonized humans by a host-switch. Finally, our data and that of others indicated that chimpanzees and bonobos maintain malaria parasites, to which humans are susceptible, a factor of some relevance to the renewed efforts to eradicate malaria.

One new drimane-type sesquiterpenoid, named ugandenial A (1), was isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of the bark of Warburgia ugandensis (Canellaceae) together with eight known drimane-type sesquiterpenoids: 11alpha-hydroxycinnamosmolide (2), warburganal (3), polygodial (4), mukaadial (5), dendocarbin A (6), 9alpha-hydroxycinnamolide (7), dendocarbin L (8) and dendocarbin M (9). Their structures were established by detailed spectroscopic analysis. In addition a keto-enol equilibrium was demonstrated for compound 1 through a detailed NMR analysis run in CD(2)Cl(2) at 190 K. Cytotoxicity of the isolated compounds against KB cells was evaluated.

In the framework of the phytochemical investigation of plant species eaten by wild chimpanzees in their natural environment in Uganda, leaf samples of Markhamia lutea were selected and collected. The crude ethyl acetate extract of M. lutea leaves exhibited significant in vitro anti-parasitic activity and low cytotoxicity against MRC5 and KB cells. Fractionation of this extract led to six cycloartane triterpenoids, musambins A-C and their 3-O-xyloside derivatives musambiosides A-C. The structures were elucidated on the basis of spectral studies including mass spectroscopy and extensive 2D NMR. Most of the compounds exhibited mild anti-leishmanial and anti-trypanosomal activities.

Nodular worms (Oesophagostomum spp.) are common intestinal parasites found in cattle, pig, and primates including humans. In human, they are responsible for serious clinical disease called oesophagostomosis resulting from the formation of granulomas, caseous lesions or abscesses in intestinal walls. In wild great apes, the fecal prevalence of this parasite is high, but little information is available concerning the clinical signs and lesions associated. In the present study, we describe six cases of multinodular oesophagostomosis in free-ranging and ex-captive chimpanzees and captive gorillas caused by Oesophagostomum stephanostomum. While severe clinical signs associated with this infection were observed in great apes raised in sanctuaries, nodules found in wild chimpanzees do not seem to affect their health status. One hypothesis to explain this difference would be that in wild chimpanzees, access to natural environment and behavior such as rough leaves swallowing combined with ingestion of plants having pharmacological properties would prevent severe infection and decrease potential symptoms.

Geophagy, the deliberate ingestion of soil, is a widespread practice among animals, including humans. Although some cases are well documented, motivations and consequences of this practice on the health status of the consumer remain unclear. In this paper, we focused our study on chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) of the Kibale National Park, Uganda, after observing they sometimes ingest soil shortly before or after consuming some plant parts such as leaves of Trichilia rubescens, which have in vitro anti-malarial properties. Chemical and mineralogical analyses of soil eaten by chimpanzees and soil used by the local healer to treat diarrhoea revealed similar composition, the clay mineralogy being dominated by kaolinite. We modelled the interaction between samples of the two types of soil and the leaves of T. rubescens in gastric and intestinal compartments and assayed the anti-malarial properties of these solutions. Results obtained for both soil samples are similar and support the hypothesis that soil enhances the pharmacological properties of the bio-available gastric fraction. The adaptive function of geophagy is likely to be multi-factorial. Nevertheless, the medical literature and most of occidental people usually consider geophagy in humans as an aberrant behaviour, symptomatic of metabolic dysfunction. Our results provide a new evidence to view geophagy as a practice for maintaining health, explaining its persistence through evolution.

We measured the biological activities of a selected sample (84 crude extracts) of 24 species eaten by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Kibale National Park, western Uganda, to assess their potential chemotherapeutic values. Antibacterial, antimalarial, and/or antileishmania activities were observed in some crude extracts, and five of these extracts showed a significant cytotoxicity against human tumor cells. Active compounds isolated from three plant parts occasionally ingested by chimpanzees (Diospyros abyssinica (Ebenaceae) bark, Uvariopsis congensis (Annonaceae) leaves, and Trichilia rubescens (Meliaceae) leaves) showed highly significant medicinal properties. Two novel antiparasitic limonoids were isolated from Trichilia rubescens and their molecular structures were determined. In addition to elucidating the natural equilibrium maintained between hosts and pathogens, our investigation of the diet of wild chimpanzees may serve as a guideline to discovering plants with bioactive properties that should be preserved from destruction because of their health maintenance value for great ape populations., (2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Wild chimpanzees eat several plant species claimed by traditional healers to cure diseases. However, the behaviour leading apes to ingest these peculiar species is not clearly understood. Some of the items consumed by chimpanzees have low nutritional value, and there is a growing body of evidence suggesting that health might be improved or regulated by such ingestion. Observations concerning the diet and the health condition of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Kibale National Park (Uganda) are discussed in relation to the ethnomedicinal utilization of plant species reviewed in literature. Among the 163 plant parts known to be eaten by these chimpanzees, at least 35 (21.4%) are used in traditional medicine as treatments for intestinal parasites, skin infections, reproduction and respiratory diseases. Relationships with pharmacological properties are presented, taking into account the difficulties of interpreting ethnomedicinal data. In conclusion, a greater knowledge of ape's behaviour and health may provide a new complementary method to select plants for biomedical research.

Three new oleanane-type triterpene saponins (1-3), named grandibracteosides A-C, were isolated from the methanolic extract of leaves of Albizia grandibracteata, a species consumed by primates in the Kibale National Park, Uganda. The structures of the saponins were established using 1D and 2D NMR experiments and mass spectrometry and confirmed by acid and alkaline hydrolysis. The crude extract and the pure compounds showed significant inhibitory activity against KB and MCF7 tumoral cell lines in vitro. The compounds are glycosides of acacic acid acylated by an o-aminobenzoyl unit. This is the first report of such ester saponins in dicotyledonous plants. Studies of the primate diet may provide a useful method for finding naturally occurring compounds of medicinal significance.

Following a veterinary and behavioral survey of chimpanzees from a natural population in Uganda, leaf samples of Trichilia rubescens were collected because of the unusual method of ingestion observed. The methanolic crude extract of T. rubescens leaves exhibited significant antimalarial activity in vitro. Bioassay-directed fractionation provided two new limonoids, trichirubines A and B. A greater understanding of the role of secondary compounds in the primate diet may be helpful in recovering naturally occurring compounds of medicinal significance for human medicine.

Coprophagy occurred during major periods of feeding on fruits of Dialium spp. (Caesalpiniaceae) in a group of orphaned chimpanzees released in Conkouati Douli National Park, Republic of Congo. Since stress, boredom or food scarcity could not explain coprophagy according to our daily behavioral and veterinary control observations, we suggest that Dialium seeds were the item of interest in the feces. Two types of Dialium seeds were commonly found in the feces after chimpanzees swallowed the mesocarp and whole seeds together. These seeds were either whole and hard or whole/broken and soft imbibed. A mechanical and/or chemical effect of the gut passage may enable the chimpanzees to chew and ingest the seeds, thus providing nutritional intake.