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The three-dimensional (3D) morphology of a nanometer-sized object can be obtained using electron tomography. Variations in composition or density of the object cause variations in the reconstructed intensity. When imaging homogeneous objects, variations in reconstructed intensity are caused by the imaging technique, imaging conditions, and reconstruction. In this paper, we describe data acquisition, image processing, and 3D reconstruction to obtain and compare tomograms of magnetite crystals from bright field (BF) transmission electron microscopy (TEM), annular dark-field (ADF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), and high-angle annular dark field (HAADF) STEM tilt series. We use histograms, which plot the number of volume elements (voxels) at a given intensity vs. the intensity, to measure and quantitatively compare intensity distributions among different tomograms. In combination with numerical simulations, we determine the influence of maximum tilt angle, tilt increment, contrast changes with tilt (diffraction contrast), and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) as well as the choice of the reconstruction approach (weighted backprojection (WB) and sequential iterative reconstruction technique (SIRT)) on the histogram. We conclude that because ADF and HAADF STEM techniques are less affected by diffraction, and because they have a higher SNR than BF TEM, they are better suited for tomography of nanometer-sized crystals.

A method for obtaining detailed two-dimensional strain maps in nanowires and related nanoscale structures has been developed. The approach relies on a combination of lattice imaging by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and geometric phase analysis of the resulting micrographs using Fourier transform routines. We demonstrate the method for a germanium nanowire grown epitaxially on Si(111) by obtaining the strain components epsilon(xx), epsilon(yy), epsilon(xy), the mean dilatation, and the rotation of the lattice planes. The resulting strain maps are demonstrated to allow detailed evaluation of the strains and loading on nanowires.

We describe the synthesis of novel monocrystalline FeCo nanowires encapsulated inside multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs). These FeCo nanowires exhibit homogeneous Fe and Co concentrations and do not contain an external oxide layer due to the presence of insulating nanotube layers. The method involves the aerosol thermolysis of toluene-ferrocene-cobaltocene solutions in inert atmospheres. The materials have been carefully characterized using state-of-the-art high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), electron-energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), electron diffraction, HREELS-STM elemental mapping, X-ray powder diffraction, and SQUID magnetometry. We noted that the formation of FeCo alloys occurs at relatively low pyrolytic temperatures (e.g., 650-750 degrees C). These single-crystal nanowires, which have not been reported hitherto, always exhibit the FeCo (110) plane parallel to the carbon nanotube axis. The FeCo nanomaterials have shown large coercive fields at room temperature (e.g., 900 Oe). We envisage that these aligned ferromagnetic nanowires could be used in the fabrication of high-density magnetic storage devices and magnetic composites.

The Gerchberg-Papoulis (GP) iterative algorithm is applied to electron holographic reconstruction to supplement the Fourier-transform method. The GP algorithm can recover the phase to high accuracy using simulated holograms. This method is useful when a region of known amplitude is present, such as a region of vacuum or uniform thickness. Modulations of the phase on the order of 0.1 rad can be corrected significantly using this algorithm.

Specimen charging may be one of the most significant factors that contribute to the high variability and generally low quality of images in cryo-electron microscopy. Understanding the nature of specimen charging can help in devising methods to reduce or even avoid its effects and thus improve the rate of data collection as well as the quality of the data. We describe a series of experiments that help to characterize the charging phenomenon, which has been termed the Berriman effect. The pattern of buildup and disappearance of the charge pattern has led to several suggestions for how to alleviate the effect. Experiments are described that demonstrate the feasibility of such charge mitigation.

During in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) field emission experiments, carbon nanotubes are observed to strongly diffract the imaging TEM electron beam. We demonstrate that this effect is identical to that of a standard electrostatic biprism. We also demonstrate that the nanotube biprism can be used to capture electron-holographic information.

Silicon wafers with a complex but known dopant profile were used to explore possible methods for improving the reliability of off-axis electron holography for quantitative determination of electrostatic potential profiles in doped semiconductor devices. The variability of results from nominally identical structures was attributed to local charging and associated external fields, forcing the development of a more robust approach to hologram analysis that incorporated an additional phase correction factor rather than rely on vacuum for phase flattening. Consistent results in close agreement with simulated profiles based on measured dopant distributions could then be obtained. Carbon coating was shown to be effective in reducing accumulation of charge caused by emission of secondary electrons. Overall, this work demonstrates that reliable potential profiles from unbiased samples should be obtainable on a routine basis provided that regions suitable for flattening of the phase profile can be identified.

In both human and rat tissues, complex patterns of transcripts are derived from the genes that encode the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)(A) receptor epsilon subunit. An epsilon subunit transcript (approximately 3.6 kb) is expressed at relatively high levels in regions of the human brain and heart, but is not detected in most other major tissues. The encoded human epsilon subunit (epsilon (h)) confers distinctive properties to receptors into which it assembles. A distinct transcript of the gene (6.2 kb) is expressed abundantly in a variety of human tissues. This alternative transcript (ET2) appears to originate from within the epsilon subunit gene. It is possible that this transcript encodes a truncated subunit (epsilon (hS)), containing all of the transmembrane and intracellular domains. However, a combination of biochemical and electrophysiological analyses does not support this hypothesis. A distinct transcript of the epsilon subunit gene, encoding a large extracellular pro/glx domain, is expressed abundantly in rat and mouse brain. Functional analyses also failed to provide evidence for incorporation of this subunit (epsilon (rL)) into recombinant receptors. However, a shorter rat epsilon subunit (epsilon (r)), which lacks the pro/glx domain, conferred epsilon (h)-like properties to recombinant receptors, providing evidence for a functional rat epsilon subunit. In common with its human orthologue, incorporation of the epsilon (r) subunit into recombinant GABA(A) receptors confers several distinctive properties, including a reduced modulation by the anesthetic propofol and the appearance of spontaneous current.

Quantitative two-dimensional maps of electrostatic potential in device structures are obtained using off-axis electron holography with a spatial resolution of 6 nm and a sensitivity of 0.17 V. Estimates of junction depth and variation in electrostatic potential obtained by electron holography, process simulation, and secondary ion mass spectroscopy show close agreement. Measurement artifacts due to sample charging and surface "dead layers" do not need to be considered provided that proper care is taken with sample preparation. The results demonstrate that electron holography could become an effective method for quantitative 2D analysis of dopant diffusion in deep-submicron devices.

Electron holography performed in situ inside a high resolution transmission electron microscope has been used to determine the magnitude and spatial distribution of the electric field surrounding individual field-emitting carbon nanotubes. The electric field (and hence the associated field emission current) is concentrated precisely at the tips of the nanotubes and not at other nanotube defects such as sidewall imperfections. The electric field magnitude and distribution are stable in time, even in cases where the nanotube field emission current exhibits extensive temporal fluctuations.

Nanocrystals of magnetite (Fe(3)O(4)) in a meteorite from Mars provide the strongest, albeit controversial, evidence for the former presence of extraterrestrial life. The morphological and size resemblance of the crystals from meteorite ALH84001 to crystals formed by certain terrestrial bacteria has been used in support of the biological origin of the extraterrestrial minerals. By using tomographic and holographic methods in a transmission electron microscope, we show that the three-dimensional shapes of such nanocrystals can be defined, that the detailed morphologies of individual crystals from three bacterial strains differ, and that none uniquely match those reported from the Martian meteorite. In contrast to previous accounts, we argue that the existing crystallographic and morphological evidence is inadequate to support the inference of former life on Mars.

Growth reactions based on a newly developed deuterium-stabilized Sn hydride [(Ph)SnD(3)] with Ge(2)H(6) produce a new family of Ge-Sn semiconductors with tunable band gaps and potential applications in high-speed, high-efficiency infrared optoelectronics. Metastable diamond-cubic films of Ge(1-x)Sn(x) alloys are created by chemical vapor deposition at 350 degrees C on Si(100). These exhibit unprecedented thermal stability and superior crystallinity despite the 17% lattice mismatch between the constituent materials. The composition, crystal structure, electronic structure, and optical properties of these materials are characterized by Rutherford backscattering, high-resolution electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction, as well as Raman, IR, and spectroscopic ellipsometry. Electron diffraction reveals monocrystalline and perfectly epitaxial layers with lattice constants intermediate between those of Ge and alpha-Sn. X-ray diffraction in the theta-2theta mode shows well-defined peaks corresponding to random alloys, and in-plane rocking scans of the (004) reflection confirm a tightly aligned spread of the crystal mosaics. RBS ion-channeling including angular scans confirm that Sn occupies substitutional lattice sites and also provide evidence of local ordering of the elements with increasing Sn concentration. The Raman spectra show bands corresponding to Ge-Ge and Sn-Ge vibrations with frequencies consistent with random tetrahedral alloys. Resonance Raman and ellipsometry spectra indicate a band-gap reduction relative to Ge. The IR transmission spectra suggest that the band gap decreases monotonically with increasing Sn fraction. The synthesis, characterization, and gas-phase electron diffraction structure of (Ph)SnD(3) are also reported.

Magnetization reversal processes in lithographically patterned magnetic elements that have lateral dimensions of 70-500 nm, thicknesses of 3-30 nm and a wide range of shapes and layer sequences have been followed in situ using off-axis electron holography in the transmission electron microscope. This technique allows domain structures within individual elements and the magnetic interactions between them to be quantified at close to the nanometre scale. The behaviour of 30 nm-thick Co elements was compared with that of 10 nm-thick Ni and Co elements, as well as with Co/Au/Ni trilayers. The hysteresis loops of individual elements were determined directly from the measured holographic phase images. The reproducibility of an element's domain structure in successive cycles was found to be affected by the out-of-plane component of the applied magnetic field and by the exact details of its initial magnetic state. Close proximity to adjacent elements led to strong intercell coupling, and remanent states with the in-plane magnetic field removed included domain structures such as solenoidal (vortex) states that were never observed during hysteresis cycling. Narrow rectangular bars reversed without the formation of end domains, whereas closely separated magnetic layers within individual elements were observed to couple to each other during field reversal.