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Purpose: This study was to investigate weaning practices used by mothers when transitioning infants from breast milk to complementary foods and to determine the role these foods have in the transmission of gastrointestinal parasites., Participants and Methods: On average, of the 175 mothers extensively interviewed, 93% said they had breast-fed their infants. Approximately 20.8% of mothers had added some other liquid to their infant's diet at 3 months, while most mothers had added other liquids at 6 months (39.0%) and >6 months (32.1%). Some mothers expanded food offerings to infants before 3 months. The percentage of mothers who had added other liquids to their infants' diet was reported by age of the infant: as early as 1 day (2.5%), <1 week (1.9%), first month (3.1%), 3 months (20.8%), 6 months (39.0%), and >6 months (32.1%). These foods included fruit, vegetables, meat, and grains. The maximum age a child was found to be still breastfeeding was 13 years., Results: Forty percent of mothers involved in this survey reported that their children were diagnosed and/or treated for gastrointestinal parasitic infection. Routes of infection of protozoan and helminth parasites likely resulted from contaminated complementary foods and water given to infants while still breast-feeding or from contaminated foods after breast-feeding had been completed. Contaminated water is a likely source of protozoan parasites. Contaminated water was fed to infants, mixed with formula or complementary foods, or used to wash bottles for infant feeding. There was an absence of hand-washing by children and mothers before eating or while preparing foods., Conclusion: The major source of soil-transmitted helminth infections was likely the result of unwashed or uncooked pureed fruit or vegetables used as complementary foods, unpasteurized animal milk, insanitary food storage, poor living conditions with exposed dirt floors, and exposure to roaming domestic animals., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Protozoal diseases are prevalent globally and especially in developing countries that have relatively lower socioeconomic populations such as Egypt. Direct microscopic examination (DME) is used for the detection and identification of protozoa but lacks sufficient reliability, and thus may be detrimental in obtaining accurate diagnostic or epidemiological data. In this study, we determine the prevalence of infections by Giardia intestinalis, Cryptosporidium sp., and Entamoeba histolytica in humans in Egypt. Furthermore, we determine the reliability of DME in determining infections caused by these protozoa and compare the results to enzyme linked Immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Our results indicate that the prevalence of giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, and entamoebiasis is 38, 22, and 16 %, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of DME for detection of G. intestinalis is 45 and 99 %, for Cryptosporidium 66 and 99 %, and for Entamoeba 45 and 100 %, respectively. Our findings demonstrate that ELISA is more reliable for diagnostic and epidemiologic study purposes.

Gastrointestinal infections impose a great and often silent burden of morbidity and mortality on poor populations in developing countries. The Dominican Republic (DR) is a nation on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. Verón is located in La Alta Grácia province in the southeastern corner of the DR. Dominican and Haitian migrant workers come to Verón to work in Punta Cana, a tourist resort area. Few definitive or comprehensive studies of the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitic infections have been published in the DR. Historically, most of the definitive studies of water-borne or soil-transmitted parasites in the DR were published more than 30 years ago. Presently, there is a high prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitic infections throughout the poorest areas of the DR and Haiti. In this study we report the prevalence of gastrointestinal protozoan and helminth parasites from children recruited from the Clínica Rural de Verón during 2008 through 2011. Each participant was asked to provide a fecal sample which was promptly examined microscopically for protozoan and helminth parasites using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) fecal flotation technique to concentrate and isolate helminth ova and protozoan cysts. Of the 128 fecal samples examined, 127 were positive for one or more parasites. The age of the infected children ranged from 2-15 years; 61 were males and 66 were females. The only uninfected child was a 9 year old female. Percent infection rates were 43.8% for Ascaris lumbricoides , 8.5% for Enterobius vermicularis , 21.1% for Entamoeba histolytica , and 22.7% for Giardia duodenalis. Of the children examined, 7.8% had double infections. Any plan of action to reduce gastrointestinal parasites in children will require a determined effort between international, national, and local health authorities combined with improved education of schools, child care providers, food handlers, and agricultural workers. A special effort must be made to reach out to both documented and undocumented immigrants working or living in the area and to pre-school aged children or those who are not part of the public education system. Lastly, it is important to address the microbial water quality and food preparation, especially during the weaning transition to solid foods and throughout childhood., Competing Interests: There is no financial disclosure to report. Kristin A Geers Childers, James R Palmieri, Mindy Sampson, and Danielle Brunet have no conflicts of interest in this work. None of the authors are receiving any financial benefit from the research conducted or from the reporting of this research. All authors actively participated in the performance of the reported research and in the writing and editing of the manuscript., (© 2014 Geers Childers et al.)

Microsporidiosis often occurs in immunocompromised persons but may also occur in those who are immunocompetent. Infection by Microsporidia involves a variety of organs and systems, most notably, intestine, lung, kidney, brain, sinuses, muscle, and eyes. Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis are associated with gastroenteritis, and Enterocytozoon hellem and Encephalitozoon cuniculi are associated with keratoconjunctivitis. We report a case of chronic microsporidiosis in a 28-year-old woman missionary from Mozambique who came to our diagnostic laboratory with nausea, lower abdominal pain, and frequent bowel movements. Over two years, the patient was clinically assessed and treated for malaria and giardiasis without laboratory diagnosis while in Mozambique. Identification of the causative agent of her condition was not attempted during the course of her illness in Mozambique. Furthermore, adverse effects of malaria and giardiasis medications may have exacerbated the chronic illness in this patient and mimicked chronic microsporidiosis.

The new ground being broken by the field of nanotechnology provides us with numerous prospects for treatment and prevention of infectious diseases. Recent reports have demonstrated that several types of nanoparticles act as potent free radical scavengers and antioxidants. Specific nanoconstructs are also reported to have anti-inflammatory activities. Given these properties, the potential application of antioxidant nanoparticles for controlling infectious diseases are discussed in this review. Numerous pathogenic agents establish their virulence and pathogenicity by virtue of their ability to produce free radicals and damage the cells of the immune system. For example, Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a bacterium that produces the toxin pyocyanin, which induces cell damage and compromises the immune system through production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Nanoparticle antioxidants may provide unique opportunities to counteract the pathogenicity of these types of microorganisms and their formation of biofilms, which are also related to oxygen levels and ROS production. The use of nanoparticles may also play a role in controlling conditions such as ventilation associated pneumonia, where high levels of oxygen induces oxidative stress and inhibits respiratory tract immunity. In contrast, nanoparticle antioxidants, by virtue of their anti-inflammatory activity, may blunt a host's normal immune defenses to certain microorganisms. This review will address this emerging double-edged sword for nanomedicine and its potential role in controlling infectious disease and will address future directions for research in this emerging frontier.