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Objective: To determine if the increased risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with lower socioeconomic status could be explained by higher prevalence of known risk factors including hypertension or whether there was an independent effect of deprivation., Methods: A retrospective cohort study of mortality was carried out on 3360 patients who attended Glasgow Blood Pressure Unit between 1991 and 2000, followed for a mean period of 8.1 years. Cox proportional hazards models were used to adjust for the effects of age, sex, socioeconomic circumstances, systolic and diastolic blood pressures at baseline and on treatment, smoking, diabetes mellitus, history of angina and myocardial infarction, excessive alcohol consumption, BMI and serum cholesterol., Results: Of 442 deaths, 244 (55%) were from cardiovascular diseases. After adjustment, residents of the most deprived areas had a hazard ratio for all cause mortality of 1.46 (95% confidence interval 1.04, 2.04). Adjusted hazard ratio for death from cardiovascular disease in the most deprived areas was 1.65 (1.04, 2.60) compared with those from the most affluent areas., Conclusion: Socioeconomic deprivation appears to have a significant independent effect on risks of death from cardiovascular disease.

Stroke results in substantial morbidity and mortality globally. Asia-Pacific countries bear a disproportionate share of the burden of stroke, a burden that will grow as their populations' life expectancies rise. Hypertension is the single most important reversible risk factor for stroke, and effective measures to reduce blood pressure contribute significantly to reducing the incidence of stroke. The Asia-Pacific Consensus Conference on Stroke Prevention in Hypertensive Patients assembled leading experts from the region to reach an actionable consensus aimed at reducing stroke-induced morbidity and mortality in Asia through the evidence-based treatment of hypertension. The discussions of the group focused on how best to improve blood pressure control, how to promote lifestyle changes at the population level, and how to reduce the clinical and health system barriers and other challenges facing developing and low-income countries. The experts concluded that physicians must place an increased priority on reducing their patients' risk of stroke and recognise that all hypertensive patients are at greater risk of having a stroke compared with nonhypertensive individuals. They advocated that physicians must educate hypertensive patients about the risk of stroke, promote lifestyle modification to all patients diagnosed with hypertension, and prescribe rigorous antihypertensive treatment to get patients to recommended blood pressure goals.

Background and Purpose: The relationship between baseline and recurrent vascular events may be important in the targeting of secondary prevention strategies. We examined the relationship between initial event and various types of further vascular outcomes and associated effects of blood pressure (BP)-lowering., Methods: Subsidiary analyses of the Perindopril Protection Against Recurrent Stroke Study (PROGRESS) trial, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial that established the benefits of BP-lowering in 6105 patients (mean age 64 years, 30% female) with cerebrovascular disease, randomly assigned to either active treatment (perindopril for all, plus indapamide in those with neither an indication for, nor a contraindication to, a diuretic) or placebo(s)., Results: Stroke subtypes and coronary events were associated with 1.5- to 6.6-fold greater risk of recurrence of the same event (hazard ratios, 1.51 to 6.64; P=0.1 for large artery infarction, P<0.0001 for other events). However, 46% to 92% of further vascular outcomes were not of the same type. Active treatment produced comparable reductions in the risk of vascular outcomes among patients with a broad range of vascular events at entry (relative risk reduction, 25%; P<0.0001 for ischemic stroke; 42%, P=0.0006 for hemorrhagic stroke; 17%, P=0.3 for coronary events; P homogeneity=0.4)., Conclusions: Patients with previous vascular events are at high risk of recurrences of the same event. However, because they are also at risk of other vascular outcomes, a broad range of secondary prevention strategies is necessary for their treatment. BP-lowering is likely to be one of the most effective and generalizable strategies across a variety of major vascular events including stroke and myocardial infarction.

Objective: To examine the effect of telmisartan or hydrochlorothiazide on the control of urinary albumin excretion (UAE) in patients with isolated systolic hypertension (ISH) unselected for albuminuria in a pre-planned substudy of a large, multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study., Methods: The Angiotensin II Receptor Antagonist Micardis in Isolated Systolic hypertension (ARAMIS) study compared the antihypertensive efficacy after 6 weeks of once-daily fixed doses of telmisartan 20, 40 or 80 mg versus hydrochlorothiazide 12.5 mg or placebo in patients (n = 1039, aged 35-84 years) with ISH (seated blood pressure 150-179/< 90 mmHg). The prospective substudy analysed UAE using spot morning samples., Results: Urinary albumin (> 2.2-901.6 mg/l) was detected at baseline in 614 out of 918 patients who were included in the substudy analysis. In the telmisartan group (n = 354, all doses combined), a median reduction in UAE from a baseline of 14.1% [95% confidence interval (CI) 7.3, 21.8] was observed versus 1.1% (95% CI -13.5 to 16.0) and 2.7% (95% CI -0.9 to 19.9) in the hydrochlorothiazide (n = 140) and placebo (n = 120) groups, respectively. The difference between telmisartan and hydrochlorothiazide was significant (P = 0.017). Reductions in UAE with telmisartan were observed in patients with baseline normoalbuminuria, microalbuminuria or macroalbuminuria. Telmisartan and hydrochlorothiazide produced comparable reductions in systolic blood pressure in these patients., Conclusion: In patients with ISH unselected for baseline albuminuria, telmisartan 20-80 mg after 6 weeks' treatment afforded significantly greater lowering of UAE than hydrochlorothiazide 12.5 mg, irrespective of the baseline UAE, and despite comparable reductions in systolic blood pressure with both drugs.

Management of Parkinson's disease (PD) depends primarily on oral medication. There are several drug classes and multiple doses and formulations, which make optimizing therapy complex. Variable drug absorption and the short half-life of most antiparkinson treatments, especially levodopa, are a main focus in understanding complications and have encouraged alternative delivery systems to limit fluctuation and dyskinesia at later stages. Comparatively little attention is paid to the way patients take their oral medication. Variable medicine-taking behavior can affect the clinician's understanding of the diagnosis and rate of progression, and further prescription of PD medication. Medicine overuse in later stage PD is well documented and causes psychiatric disturbance and increases motor complications, but evidence of undertreatment and erratic intake is emerging, which is likely to affect motor control and quality of life adversely. Methods of quantifying compliance are compared for accuracy and limitations. Understanding medicine-taking behavior is a first step in optimizing therapy and requires consideration of a patient's personal beliefs about their medicines. Although the benefits of regularizing oral medicine-taking in a practical, achievable way in PD remain untested, such an approach might prolong and smooth the benefits of oral medication and is worthy of further research.

Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) may produce a number of molecule-specific effects that appear to be independent of interaction with the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1)-receptor. These include antagonism of the thromboxane A2 receptor, inhibition of platelet aggregation, induction of peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) activity, and reduction of serum uric acid levels. However, definitive evidence is lacking that these molecule-specific effects give rise to a therapeutic advantage of one ARB over another. Currently, the possibility of a link between a molecule-specific effect of an ARB and an improvement in clinical outcomes is best illustrated by a reduction in serum uric acid levels with losartan. Data from Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension (LIFE) study suggest a treatment-induced decrease in serum uric acid may contribute to the treatment benefit of a losartan-based versus atenolol-based therapy on the composite endpoint (death, myocardial infarction, or stroke). This finding should prompt further studies to investigate the long-term cardioprotective benefits issue of reducing hyperuricaemia in hypertensive patients.

Background: Secondary prevention of stroke with antihypertensive drugs is now standard practice, but it is unclear how soon after a cerebrovascular event antihypertensive therapy should be initiated or re-started. Due to impaired cerebral autoregulation, changes in systemic blood pressure may be reflected in cerebral perfusion, especially in hypertensive patients immediately post-stroke. Conversely, early initiation in hospital may better assure continued long-term treatment. We have investigated the effect of the angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ARA) losartan on mean arterial blood pressure (MABP), global and focal cerebral blood flow (CBF), and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in hypertensive patients 2-7 days after stroke., Methods: Twenty-four patients without occlusive carotid disease but with MABP between 110 and 145 mmHg were studied within 2-7 days of ischaemic stroke/transient ischaemic attack (TIA). They were randomized to receive either placebo or losartan (25 or 50 mg daily). MABP and internal carotid artery (ICA) flow were measured at baseline, over the following 24 h and at 2 weeks. Brain hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime single photon emission computed tomography (HMPAO SPECT) was performed before dosing and at the estimated time of peak drug effect (6-8 h after the first dose). GFR was measured at baseline and at 2 weeks., Results: The mean National Institutes of Health (NIH) score of randomized patients was 2.6; losartan was generally well tolerated and no patient suffered a deterioration in neurological function. A mean placebo-corrected intra-subject reduction in MABP of 9.5 mmHg was observed in treated patients from 1-12 h (P = 0.0001), with a maximal fall of 18.1 mmHg at 9 h post-dose (P = 0.002). No change occurred in ICA flow, or cortical or hemispheric CBF measured by HMPAO SPECT. No significant change in GFR was seen within or between groups., Discussion: Losartan may be introduced within 2-7 days of mild stroke in hypertensive patients in whom significant carotid occlusive disease has been excluded without affecting global or regional CBF, or affecting GFR.

Objective: To identify telmisartan doses that are more effective than placebo and non-inferior to hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) 12.5 mg, and are well tolerated, in lowering systolic blood pressure (SBP) in patients with isolated systolic hypertension (ISH)., Patients and Methods: A 2-4-week single-blind placebo run-in was followed by randomization of 1039 patients (age 36-84 years) with ISH [seated SBP 150-179 mmHg and seated diastolic blood pressure (DBP) < 90 mmHg] to once-daily double-blind treatment with telmisartan 20, 40 or 80 mg, HCTZ 12.5 mg, or placebo. The change in seated trough SBP after 6 weeks compared with baseline was the primary end point. Secondary end points were the percentage achieving the target fall in SBP and the change from baseline in seated trough DBP. Incidence and severity of adverse events and physical examination and laboratory parameters were monitored for the safety evaluation., Results: Baseline demographics in telmisartan 20 mg (n = 206), 40 mg (n = 210), 80 mg (n = 207), HCTZ 12.5 mg (n = 205) and placebo (n = 211) treatment groups were comparable: (mean +/- SD) age, 63.0 +/- 10.9 years; SBP, 162.9 +/- 8.1 mmHg; and DBP 83.4 +/- 5.0 mmHg. No previous antihypertensive therapy had been received by 66% of the patients. Mean reductions in seated trough SBP (adjusted for baseline and country) were: telmisartan 20 mg, 15.6 mmHg (n = 204); 40 mg, 17.9 mmHg (n = 209); and 80 mg, 16.9 mmHg (n = 205), compared with placebo, 11.4 mmHg (n = 208), and HCTZ 12.5 mg, 15.7 mmHg (n = 204). The target fall in seated trough SBP (< or =140 mmHg or reduction by > or =20 mmHg) was achieved in 46.6% (telmisartan 20 mg), 51.7% (telmisartan 40 mg), 53.9% (telmisartan 80 mg), 27.4% (placebo) and 42.7% (HCTZ 12.5 mg); the response rate was significantly higher for telmisartan 80 mg than for HCTZ 12.5 mg (P = 0.03). All-causality adverse events occurred in 19.9, 17.6 and 20.3% receiving telmisartan 20, 40 and 80 mg, respectively; 20.9% receiving placebo and 22.0% receiving HCTZ 12.5 mg. No drug-related serious adverse events occurred., Conclusions: All doses of telmisartan (20-80 mg) were significantly superior to placebo in reducing SBP in patients with ISH and clinically comparable to HCTZ 12.5 mg. Tolerability of telmisartan was similar to that of placebo.

Hypertension, aging and a range of neurodegenerative diseases are associated with increased oxidative damage. The present study examined whether superoxide (O2*-) levels in brain are increased during aging in female rats, and the role of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and oestrogen in regulating O2*- levels. Young adult (3 month) and old (11 month) female spontaneously hypertensive stroke prone rats (SHRSP) and normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) were studied. O2*- levels were measured in brain homogenates by lucigenin chemiluminescence and SOD expression by Western blotting. Ageing significantly increased brain O2*- levels in WKY (cortex +216%, hippocampus +320%, striatum +225%) and to a greater extent in SHRSP (cortex +540%, hippocampus +580%, striatum +533%). Older SHRSP showed a decline in cortical Cu/Zn SOD expression compared to young adult SHRSP. Oestrogen did not attenuate O2*- levels. The results show a significant age-dependent increase in brain O2*- levels which is exaggerated in SHRSP. The excess cortical O2*- levels in the SHRSP may be associated with a down-regulation of Cu/Zn SOD but are not related to a decrease in oestrogen.

Introduction: Rilmenidine is a centrally acting antihypertensive which differs from the other representatives of this class by its very high specificity for the imidazoline I1 receptors and its good tolerability. Recent studies have shown rilmenidine improves glucose tolerance and reduces micro-albuminuria in patients with diabetes mellitus., Methodology: The evidence of these potentially favorable characteristics encouraged a secondary retrospective analysis of a subgroup of 2738 diabetic patients included in a previous long-term open study of rilmenidine alone, or in combination with other classes of antihypertensives., Results: The antihypertensive efficacy of rilmenidine demonstrated previously in controlled studies was confirmed during the 12-month follow-up. In addition, favorable effects of drug treatment on fasting blood glucose and plasma triglyceride levels were consistent with an improvement in glucose and lipid metabolism during treatment. The profile of adverse events was similar to that observed in the nondiabetic population, the occurrence of postural hypotension being observed in <1% of patients and not necessitating any withdrawals from the study., Conclusion: Diabetic hypertensive patients frequently require the use of multiple medications and consideration of the metabolic interactions between treatments. The results of this retrospective analysis support the use of rilmenidine in patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus and should encourage the conduct of controlled trials of cardiovascular and renal protection and outcome with this compound.

Clinical pharmacology contributes to many stages of drug development including discovery, registration, and application in clinical practice. The clinical pharmacologists working in academia, in industries, and with government agencies play an important role in optimizing efficacy and efficiency of drug use. The integration of drug therapy into overall long-term clinical care offers further possibilities. For example, long-term care of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases including hypertension and heart failure have been improved by clinical pharmacologists applying evidence-based practice and rational treatment choices.

Background and Purpose: Markers of low socioeconomic status (deprivation) are associated with stroke and its causes. In the United Kingdom, area-based deprivation measures are available routinely through links with postal codes. We hypothesized that deprivation is associated with ischemic stroke risk factors, severity, subtype, and outcome., Methods: We studied 2026 patients, each with at least 2 years of outcome follow-up by record linkage after first admission with ischemic stroke to an acute stroke unit. Baseline factors recorded routinely were age, sex, medical history, blood pressure, and stroke severity and subtype. Deprivation was assessed by the Womersley score (WS) and Murray score (MS)., Results: Higher WS and MS were associated with stroke at younger age (eg, WS linear regression coefficient (r)=-0.26; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.51 to -0.01 per additional point), smoking (odds ratio [OR], 1.12; 95% CI, 1.08 to 1.17), and claudication (OR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.17); WS was associated with higher systolic blood pressure (r=0.13; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.24); and MS was associated with severe stroke. Deprivation was not associated with case fatality in univariate analysis or after correction for all baseline factors. Deprivation was associated with readmission to hospital as a result of any vascular event in univariate analysis (hazard ratio [HR], 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.09) and after correction for all baseline factors (HR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.10)., Conclusions: Tackling health inequalities in stroke should focus on stroke primary prevention by tackling deprivation, including promoting changes in lifestyle.

Background: Most cardiovascular events associated with hypertension are complications of atherosclerosis. Some antihypertensive agents influence experimental models of atherosclerosis through mechanisms independent of blood pressure lowering., Methods and Results: The European Lacidipine Study on Atherosclerosis (ELSA) was a randomized, double-blind trial in 2334 patients with hypertension that compared the effects of a 4-year treatment based on either lacidipine or atenolol on an index of carotid atherosclerosis, the mean of the maximum intima-media thicknesses (IMT) in far walls of common carotids and bifurcations (CBM(max)). This index has been shown by epidemiological studies to be predictive of cardiovascular events. A significant (P<0.0001) effect of lacidipine was found compared with atenolol, with a treatment difference in 4-year CBM(max) progression of -0.0227 mm (intention-to-treat population) and -0.0281 mm (completers). The yearly IMT progression rate was 0.0145 mm/y in atenolol-treated and 0.0087 mm/y in lacidipine-treated patients (completers, 40% reduction; P=0.0073). Patients with plaque progression were significantly less common, and patients with plaque regression were significantly more common in the lacidipine group. Clinic blood pressure reductions were identical with both treatments, but 24-hour ambulatory systolic/diastolic blood pressure changes were greater with atenolol (-10/-9 mm Hg) than with lacidipine (-7/-5 mm Hg). No significant difference between treatments was found in any cardiovascular events, although the relative risk for stroke, major cardiovascular events, and mortality showed a trend favoring lacidipine., Conclusion: The greater efficacy of lacidipine on carotid IMT progression and number of plaques per patient, despite a smaller ambulatory blood pressure reduction, indicates an antiatherosclerotic action of lacidipine independent of its antihypertensive action.