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The 'double burden of malnutrition' is a global health challenge that increasingly affects populations in both low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This phenomenon refers to the coexistence of undernutrition and overweight or obesity, as well as other diet-related non-communicable diseases, in the same population, household or even individual. While noteworthy progress has been made in reducing undernutrition in some parts of the world, in many of these areas, the prevalence of overweight and obesity is increasing, particularly in urban areas, resulting in greater numbers of people who were undernourished in childhood and have overweight or obesity in adulthood. This creates a complex and challenging situation for research experts and policymakers who must simultaneously address the public health burdens of undernutrition and overweight/obesity. This review identifies key challenges and limitations in the current research on the double burden of malnutrition in individuals, including the need for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the drivers of malnutrition, the importance of context-specific interventions and the need for greater attention to the food environment and food systems. We advocate for the re-evaluation of research strategies and focus, with a greater emphasis on multidisciplinary and systems approaches and greater attention to the synergistic relationship between the biological, environmental, commercial and socio-economic determinants of malnutrition. Addressing these key challenges can enable us to better comprehend and tackle the multifaceted and dynamic issues of the double burden of malnutrition, particularly in individuals and work towards more effective and sustainable solutions., (© 2024 The Authors. Nutrition Bulletin published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Nutrition Foundation.)

Introduction: In many developing areas in the world, a high burden of enteric pathogens in early childhood are associated with growth deficits. The tryptophan-kynurenine-niacin pathway has been linked to enteric inflammatory responses to intestinal infections. However, it is not known in these settings whether scheduled antimicrobial intervention to reduce subclinical enteric pathogen carriage or repletion of the tryptophan-kynurenine-niacin pathway improves linear growth and development., Methods and Analysis: We are conducting a randomised, placebo-controlled, factorial intervention trial in the rural setting of Haydom, Tanzania. We are recruiting 1188 children within the first 14 days of life, who will be randomised in a 2×2 factorial design to administration of antimicrobials (azithromycin and nitazoxanide, randomised together) and nicotinamide. The nicotinamide is administered as a daily oral dose, which for breast-feeding children aged 0-6 months is given to the mother and for children aged 6-18 months is given to the child directly. Azithromycin is given to the child as a single oral dose at months 6, 9, 12 and 15; nitazoxanide is given as a 3-day course at months 12 and 15. Mother/child pairs are followed via monthly in-home visits. The primary outcome is the child's length-for-age Z-score at 18 months. Secondary outcomes for the child include additional anthropometry measures; stool pathogen burden and bacterial microbiome; systemic and enteric inflammation; blood metabolomics, growth factors, inflammation and nutrition; hydrogen breath assessment to estimate small-intestinal bacterial overgrowth and assessment of cognitive development. Secondary outcomes for the mother include breastmilk content of nicotinamide, other vitamins and amino acids; blood measures of tryptophan-kynurenine-niacin pathway and stool pathogens., Ethics and Dissemination: This trial has been approved by the Tanzanian National Institute for Medical Research, the Tanzanian FDA and the University of Virginia IRB. Findings will be presented at national and international conferences and published in peer-review journals., Protocol Version: 5.0, 4 December 2017., Protocol Sponsor: Haydom Lutheran Hospital, Haydom, Manyara, Tanzania., Trial Registration Number: NCT03268902; Pre-results., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2018. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

Cryptosporidium infections have been associated with growth stunting, even in the absence of diarrhea. Having previously detailed the effects of protein deficiency on both microbiome and metabolome in this model, we now describe the specific gut microbial and biochemical effects of Cryptosporidium infection. Protein-deficient mice were infected with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts for 6-13 days and compared with uninfected controls. Following infection, there was an increase in the urinary excretion of choline- and amino-acid-derived metabolites. Conversely, infection reduced the excretion of the microbial-host cometabolite (3-hydroxyphenyl)propionate-sulfate and disrupted metabolites involved in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Correlation analysis of microbial and biochemical profiles resulted in associations between various microbiota members and TCA cycle metabolites, as well as some microbial-specific degradation products. However, no correlation was observed between the majority of the infection-associated metabolites and the fecal bacteria, suggesting that these biochemical perturbations are independent of concurrent changes in the relative abundance of members of the microbiota. We conclude that cryptosporidial infection in protein-deficient mice can mimic some metabolic changes seen in malnourished children and may help elucidate our understanding of long-term metabolic consequences of early childhood enteric infections., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press for the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)