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1. Latitudinal patterns in stabilizing density dependence of forest communities

Author

Hülsmann, Lisa, Chisholm, Ryan A., Comita, Liza, Visser, Marco D., de Souza Leite, Melina, Aguilar, Salomon, Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina J., Bourg, Norman A., Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Castaño, Nicolas, Chang-Yang, Chia-Hao, Chuyong, George B., Clay, Keith, Davies, Stuart J., Duque, Alvaro, Ediriweera, Sisira, Ewango, Corneille, Gilbert, Gregory S., Holík, Jan, Howe, Robert W., Hubbell, Stephen P., Itoh, Akira, Johnson, Daniel J., Kenfack, David, Král, Kamil, Larson, Andrew J., Lutz, James A., Makana, Jean-Remy, Malhi, Yadvinder, McMahon, Sean M., McShea, William J., Mohamad, Mohizah, Nasardin, Musalmah, Nathalang, Anuttara, Norden, Natalia, Oliveira, Alexandre A., Parmigiani, Renan, Perez, Rolando, Phillips, Richard P., Pongpattananurak, Nantachai, Sun, I-Fang, Swanson, Mark E., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Uriarte, Maria, Wolf, Amy T., Yao, Tze Leong, Zimmerman, Jess K., Zuleta, Daniel, Hartig, Florian, Hülsmann, Lisa, Chisholm, Ryan A., Comita, Liza, Visser, Marco D., de Souza Leite, Melina, Aguilar, Salomon, Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina J., Bourg, Norman A., Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Castaño, Nicolas, Chang-Yang, Chia-Hao, Chuyong, George B., Clay, Keith, Davies, Stuart J., Duque, Alvaro, Ediriweera, Sisira, Ewango, Corneille, Gilbert, Gregory S., Holík, Jan, Howe, Robert W., Hubbell, Stephen P., Itoh, Akira, Johnson, Daniel J., Kenfack, David, Král, Kamil, Larson, Andrew J., Lutz, James A., Makana, Jean-Remy, Malhi, Yadvinder, McMahon, Sean M., McShea, William J., Mohamad, Mohizah, Nasardin, Musalmah, Nathalang, Anuttara, Norden, Natalia, Oliveira, Alexandre A., Parmigiani, Renan, Perez, Rolando, Phillips, Richard P., Pongpattananurak, Nantachai, Sun, I-Fang, Swanson, Mark E., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Uriarte, Maria, Wolf, Amy T., Yao, Tze Leong, Zimmerman, Jess K., Zuleta, Daniel, and Hartig, Florian

Abstract

Numerous studies have shown reduced performance in plants that are surrounded by neighbours of the same species1,2, a phenomenon known as conspecific negative density dependence (CNDD)3. A long-held ecological hypothesis posits that CNDD is more pronounced in tropical than in temperate forests4,5, which increases community stabilization, species coexistence and the diversity of local tree species6,7. Previous analyses supporting such a latitudinal gradient in CNDD8,9 have suffered from methodological limitations related to the use of static data10,11,12. Here we present a comprehensive assessment of latitudinal CNDD patterns using dynamic mortality data to estimate species-site-specific CNDD across 23 sites. Averaged across species, we found that stabilizing CNDD was present at all except one site, but that average stabilizing CNDD was not stronger toward the tropics. However, in tropical tree communities, rare and intermediate abundant species experienced stronger stabilizing CNDD than did common species. This pattern was absent in temperate forests, which suggests that CNDD influences species abundances more strongly in tropical forests than it does in temperate ones13. We also found that interspecific variation in CNDD, which might attenuate its stabilizing effect on species diversity14,15, was high but not significantly different across latitudes. Although the consequences of these patterns for latitudinal diversity gradients are difficult to evaluate, we speculate that a more effective regulation of population abundances could translate into greater stabilization of tropical tree communities and thus contribute to the high local diversity of tropical forests.

Published
2024

2. Latitudinal patterns in stabilizing density dependence of forest communities.

Author

Holík, Jan, Holík, Jan, Howe, Robert, Hubbell, Stephen, Itoh, Akira, Johnson, Daniel, Kenfack, David, Král, Kamil, Larson, Andrew, Lutz, James, Makana, Jean-Remy, Malhi, Yadvinder, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William, Mohamad, Mohizah, Nasardin, Musalmah, Nathalang, Anuttara, Norden, Natalia, Oliveira, Alexandre, Parmigiani, Renan, Perez, Rolando, Phillips, Richard, Pongpattananurak, Nantachai, Sun, I-Fang, Swanson, Mark, Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Uriarte, Maria, Wolf, Amy, Yao, Tze, Zimmerman, Jess, Zuleta, Daniel, Hartig, Florian, Hülsmann, Lisa, Chisholm, Ryan, Comita, Liza, Visser, Marco, de Souza Leite, Melina, Aguilar, Salomon, Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina, Bourg, Norman, Brockelman, Warren, Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Castaño, Nicolas, Chang-Yang, Chia-Hao, Chuyong, George, Clay, Keith, Davies, Stuart, Duque, Alvaro, Ediriweera, Sisira, Ewango, Corneille, Gilbert, Gregory|Greg, Holík, Jan, Holík, Jan, Howe, Robert, Hubbell, Stephen, Itoh, Akira, Johnson, Daniel, Kenfack, David, Král, Kamil, Larson, Andrew, Lutz, James, Makana, Jean-Remy, Malhi, Yadvinder, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William, Mohamad, Mohizah, Nasardin, Musalmah, Nathalang, Anuttara, Norden, Natalia, Oliveira, Alexandre, Parmigiani, Renan, Perez, Rolando, Phillips, Richard, Pongpattananurak, Nantachai, Sun, I-Fang, Swanson, Mark, Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Uriarte, Maria, Wolf, Amy, Yao, Tze, Zimmerman, Jess, Zuleta, Daniel, Hartig, Florian, Hülsmann, Lisa, Chisholm, Ryan, Comita, Liza, Visser, Marco, de Souza Leite, Melina, Aguilar, Salomon, Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina, Bourg, Norman, Brockelman, Warren, Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Castaño, Nicolas, Chang-Yang, Chia-Hao, Chuyong, George, Clay, Keith, Davies, Stuart, Duque, Alvaro, Ediriweera, Sisira, Ewango, Corneille, and Gilbert, Gregory|Greg

Abstract

Numerous studies have shown reduced performance in plants that are surrounded by neighbours of the same species1,2, a phenomenon known as conspecific negative density dependence (CNDD)3. A long-held ecological hypothesis posits that CNDD is more pronounced in tropical than in temperate forests4,5, which increases community stabilization, species coexistence and the diversity of local tree species6,7. Previous analyses supporting such a latitudinal gradient in CNDD8,9 have suffered from methodological limitations related to the use of static data10-12. Here we present a comprehensive assessment of latitudinal CNDD patterns using dynamic mortality data to estimate species-site-specific CNDD across 23 sites. Averaged across species, we found that stabilizing CNDD was present at all except one site, but that average stabilizing CNDD was not stronger toward the tropics. However, in tropical tree communities, rare and intermediate abundant species experienced stronger stabilizing CNDD than did common species. This pattern was absent in temperate forests, which suggests that CNDD influences species abundances more strongly in tropical forests than it does in temperate ones13. We also found that interspecific variation in CNDD, which might attenuate its stabilizing effect on species diversity14,15, was high but not significantly different across latitudes. Although the consequences of these patterns for latitudinal diversity gradients are difficult to evaluate, we speculate that a more effective regulation of population abundances could translate into greater stabilization of tropical tree communities and thus contribute to the high local diversity of tropical forests.

Published
2024

3. ForestGEO: understanding forest diversity and dynamics through a global observatory network

Author

Davies, Stuart J., Abiem, Iveren, Abu Salim, Kamariah, Aguilar, Salomón, Allen, David, Alonso, Alfonso, Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina, Andrade, Ana, Arellano, Gabriel, Ashton, Peter S., Baker, Patrick J., Baker, Matthew E., Baltzer, Jennifer L., Basset, Yves, Bissiengou, Pulchérie, Bohlman, Stephanie, Bourg, Norman A., Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Burslem, David F.R.P., Cao, Min, Cárdenas, Dairon, Chang, Li-Wan, Chang-Yang, Chia-Hao, Chao, Kuo-Jung, Chao, Wei-Chun, Chapman, Hazel, Chen, Yu-Yun, Chisholm, Ryan A., Chu, Chengjin, Chuyong, George, Clay, Keith, Comita, Liza S., Condit, Richard, Cordell, Susan, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., de Oliveira, Alexandre Adalardo, den Ouden, Jan, Detto, Matteo, Dick, Christopher, Du, Xiaojun, Duque, Álvaro, Ediriweera, Sisira, Ellis, Erle C., Engone Obiang, Nestor Laurier, Esufali, Shameema, Ewango, Corneille E.N., Fernando, Edwino S., Filip, Jonah, Fischer, Gunter A., Foster, Robin, Giambelluca, Thomas, Giardina, Christian, Gilbert, Gregory S., Gonzalez-Akre, Erika, Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Hao, Zhanqing, Hau, Billy C.H., He, Fangliang, Ni, Hongwei, Howe, Robert W., Hubbell, Stephen P., Huth, Andreas, Inman-Narahari, Faith, Itoh, Akira, Janík, David, Jansen, Patrick A., Jiang, Mingxi, Johnson, Daniel J., Jones, F. Andrew, Kanzaki, Mamoru, Kenfack, David, Kiratiprayoon, Somboon, Král, Kamil, Krizel, Lauren, Lao, Suzanne, Larson, Andrew J., Li, Yide, Li, Xiankun, Litton, Creighton M., Liu, Yu, Liu, Shirong, Lum, Shawn K.Y., Luskin, Matthew S., Lutz, James A., Luu, Hong Truong, Ma, Keping, Makana, Jean-Remy, Malhi, Yadvinder, Martin, Adam, McCarthy, Caly, McMahon, Sean M., McShea, William J., Memiaghe, Hervé, Mi, Xiangcheng, Mitre, David, Mohamad, Mohizah, Monks, Logan, Muller-Landau, Helene C., Musili, Paul M., Myers, Jonathan A., Nathalang, Anuttara, Ngo, Kang Min, Norden, Natalia, Novotny, Vojtech, O'Brien, Michael J., Orwig, David, Ostertag, Rebecca, Papathanassiou, Konstantinos, Parker, Geoffrey G., Pérez, Rolando, Perfecto, Ivette, Phillips, Richard P., Pongpattananurak, Nantachai, Pretzsch, Hans, Ren, Haibo, Reynolds, Glen, Rodriguez, Lillian J., Russo, Sabrina E., Sack, Lawren, Sang, Weiguo, Shue, Jessica, Singh, Anudeep, Song, Guo-Zhang M., Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I-Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Swenson, Nathan G., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Sean C., Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Turner, Benjamin L., Uowolo, Amanda, Uriarte, María, Valencia, Renato, Vandermeer, John, Vicentini, Alberto, Visser, Marco, Vrska, Tomas, Wang, Xugao, Wang, Xihua, Weiblen, George D., Whitfeld, Timothy J.S., Wolf, Amy, Wright, S. Joseph, Xu, Han, Yao, Tze Leong, Yap, Sandra L., Ye, Wanhui, Yu, Mingjian, Zhang, Minhua, Zhu, Daoguang, Zhu, Li, Zimmerman, Jess K., Zuleta, Daniel, Davies, Stuart J., Abiem, Iveren, Abu Salim, Kamariah, Aguilar, Salomón, Allen, David, Alonso, Alfonso, Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina, Andrade, Ana, Arellano, Gabriel, Ashton, Peter S., Baker, Patrick J., Baker, Matthew E., Baltzer, Jennifer L., Basset, Yves, Bissiengou, Pulchérie, Bohlman, Stephanie, Bourg, Norman A., Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Burslem, David F.R.P., Cao, Min, Cárdenas, Dairon, Chang, Li-Wan, Chang-Yang, Chia-Hao, Chao, Kuo-Jung, Chao, Wei-Chun, Chapman, Hazel, Chen, Yu-Yun, Chisholm, Ryan A., Chu, Chengjin, Chuyong, George, Clay, Keith, Comita, Liza S., Condit, Richard, Cordell, Susan, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., de Oliveira, Alexandre Adalardo, den Ouden, Jan, Detto, Matteo, Dick, Christopher, Du, Xiaojun, Duque, Álvaro, Ediriweera, Sisira, Ellis, Erle C., Engone Obiang, Nestor Laurier, Esufali, Shameema, Ewango, Corneille E.N., Fernando, Edwino S., Filip, Jonah, Fischer, Gunter A., Foster, Robin, Giambelluca, Thomas, Giardina, Christian, Gilbert, Gregory S., Gonzalez-Akre, Erika, Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Hao, Zhanqing, Hau, Billy C.H., He, Fangliang, Ni, Hongwei, Howe, Robert W., Hubbell, Stephen P., Huth, Andreas, Inman-Narahari, Faith, Itoh, Akira, Janík, David, Jansen, Patrick A., Jiang, Mingxi, Johnson, Daniel J., Jones, F. Andrew, Kanzaki, Mamoru, Kenfack, David, Kiratiprayoon, Somboon, Král, Kamil, Krizel, Lauren, Lao, Suzanne, Larson, Andrew J., Li, Yide, Li, Xiankun, Litton, Creighton M., Liu, Yu, Liu, Shirong, Lum, Shawn K.Y., Luskin, Matthew S., Lutz, James A., Luu, Hong Truong, Ma, Keping, Makana, Jean-Remy, Malhi, Yadvinder, Martin, Adam, McCarthy, Caly, McMahon, Sean M., McShea, William J., Memiaghe, Hervé, Mi, Xiangcheng, Mitre, David, Mohamad, Mohizah, Monks, Logan, Muller-Landau, Helene C., Musili, Paul M., Myers, Jonathan A., Nathalang, Anuttara, Ngo, Kang Min, Norden, Natalia, Novotny, Vojtech, O'Brien, Michael J., Orwig, David, Ostertag, Rebecca, Papathanassiou, Konstantinos, Parker, Geoffrey G., Pérez, Rolando, Perfecto, Ivette, Phillips, Richard P., Pongpattananurak, Nantachai, Pretzsch, Hans, Ren, Haibo, Reynolds, Glen, Rodriguez, Lillian J., Russo, Sabrina E., Sack, Lawren, Sang, Weiguo, Shue, Jessica, Singh, Anudeep, Song, Guo-Zhang M., Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I-Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Swenson, Nathan G., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Sean C., Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Turner, Benjamin L., Uowolo, Amanda, Uriarte, María, Valencia, Renato, Vandermeer, John, Vicentini, Alberto, Visser, Marco, Vrska, Tomas, Wang, Xugao, Wang, Xihua, Weiblen, George D., Whitfeld, Timothy J.S., Wolf, Amy, Wright, S. Joseph, Xu, Han, Yao, Tze Leong, Yap, Sandra L., Ye, Wanhui, Yu, Mingjian, Zhang, Minhua, Zhu, Daoguang, Zhu, Li, Zimmerman, Jess K., and Zuleta, Daniel

Abstract

ForestGEO is a network of scientists and long-term forest dynamics plots (FDPs) spanning the Earth's major forest types. ForestGEO's mission is to advance understanding of the diversity and dynamics of forests and to strengthen global capacity for forest science research. ForestGEO is unique among forest plot networks in its large-scale plot dimensions, censusing of all stems ≥1 cm in diameter, inclusion of tropical, temperate and boreal forests, and investigation of additional biotic (e.g., arthropods) and abiotic (e.g., soils) drivers, which together provide a holistic view of forest functioning. The 71 FDPs in 27 countries include approximately 7.33 million living trees and about 12,000 species, representing 20% of the world's known tree diversity. With >1300 published papers, ForestGEO researchers have made significant contributions in two fundamental areas: species coexistence and diversity, and ecosystem functioning. Specifically, defining the major biotic and abiotic controls on the distribution and coexistence of species and functional types and on variation in species' demography has led to improved understanding of how the multiple dimensions of forest diversity are structured across space and time and how this diversity relates to the processes controlling the role of forests in the Earth system. Nevertheless, knowledge gaps remain that impede our ability to predict how forest diversity and function will respond to climate change and other stressors. Meeting these global research challenges requires major advances in standardizing taxonomy of tropical species, resolving the main drivers of forest dynamics, and integrating plot-based ground and remote sensing observations to scale up estimates of forest diversity and function, coupled with improved predictive models. However, they cannot be met without greater financial commitment to sustain the long-term research of ForestGEO and other forest plot networks, greatly expanded scientific capacity across the

Published
2021

4. ForestGEO: understanding forest diversity and dynamics through a global observatory network

Author

Davies, Stuart J., Abiem, Iveren, Abu Salim, Kamariah, Aguilar, Salomón, Allen, David, Alonso, Alfonso, Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina, Andrade, Ana, Arellano, Gabriel, Ashton, Peter S., Baker, Patrick J., Baker, Matthew E., Baltzer, Jennifer L., Basset, Yves, Bissiengou, Pulchérie, Bohlman, Stephanie, Bourg, Norman A., Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Burslem, David F.R.P., Cao, Min, Cárdenas, Dairon, Chang, Li-Wan, Chang-Yang, Chia-Hao, Chao, Kuo-Jung, Chao, Wei-Chun, Chapman, Hazel, Chen, Yu-Yun, Chisholm, Ryan A., Chu, Chengjin, Chuyong, George, Clay, Keith, Comita, Liza S., Condit, Richard, Cordell, Susan, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., de Oliveira, Alexandre Adalardo, den Ouden, Jan, Detto, Matteo, Dick, Christopher, Du, Xiaojun, Duque, Álvaro, Ediriweera, Sisira, Ellis, Erle C., Engone Obiang, Nestor Laurier, Esufali, Shameema, Ewango, Corneille E.N., Fernando, Edwino S., Filip, Jonah, Fischer, Gunter A., Foster, Robin, Giambelluca, Thomas, Giardina, Christian, Gilbert, Gregory S., Gonzalez-Akre, Erika, Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Hao, Zhanqing, Hau, Billy C.H., He, Fangliang, Ni, Hongwei, Howe, Robert W., Hubbell, Stephen P., Huth, Andreas, Inman-Narahari, Faith, Itoh, Akira, Janík, David, Jansen, Patrick A., Jiang, Mingxi, Johnson, Daniel J., Jones, F. Andrew, Kanzaki, Mamoru, Kenfack, David, Kiratiprayoon, Somboon, Král, Kamil, Krizel, Lauren, Lao, Suzanne, Larson, Andrew J., Li, Yide, Li, Xiankun, Litton, Creighton M., Liu, Yu, Liu, Shirong, Lum, Shawn K.Y., Luskin, Matthew S., Lutz, James A., Luu, Hong Truong, Ma, Keping, Makana, Jean-Remy, Malhi, Yadvinder, Martin, Adam, McCarthy, Caly, McMahon, Sean M., McShea, William J., Memiaghe, Hervé, Mi, Xiangcheng, Mitre, David, Mohamad, Mohizah, Monks, Logan, Muller-Landau, Helene C., Musili, Paul M., Myers, Jonathan A., Nathalang, Anuttara, Ngo, Kang Min, Norden, Natalia, Novotny, Vojtech, O'Brien, Michael J., Orwig, David, Ostertag, Rebecca, Papathanassiou, Konstantinos, Parker, Geoffrey G., Pérez, Rolando, Perfecto, Ivette, Phillips, Richard P., Pongpattananurak, Nantachai, Pretzsch, Hans, Ren, Haibo, Reynolds, Glen, Rodriguez, Lillian J., Russo, Sabrina E., Sack, Lawren, Sang, Weiguo, Shue, Jessica, Singh, Anudeep, Song, Guo-Zhang M., Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I-Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Swenson, Nathan G., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Sean C., Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Turner, Benjamin L., Uowolo, Amanda, Uriarte, María, Valencia, Renato, Vandermeer, John, Vicentini, Alberto, Visser, Marco, Vrska, Tomas, Wang, Xugao, Wang, Xihua, Weiblen, George D., Whitfeld, Timothy J.S., Wolf, Amy, Wright, S. Joseph, Xu, Han, Yao, Tze Leong, Yap, Sandra L., Ye, Wanhui, Yu, Mingjian, Zhang, Minhua, Zhu, Daoguang, Zhu, Li, Zimmerman, Jess K., Zuleta, Daniel, Davies, Stuart J., Abiem, Iveren, Abu Salim, Kamariah, Aguilar, Salomón, Allen, David, Alonso, Alfonso, Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina, Andrade, Ana, Arellano, Gabriel, Ashton, Peter S., Baker, Patrick J., Baker, Matthew E., Baltzer, Jennifer L., Basset, Yves, Bissiengou, Pulchérie, Bohlman, Stephanie, Bourg, Norman A., Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Burslem, David F.R.P., Cao, Min, Cárdenas, Dairon, Chang, Li-Wan, Chang-Yang, Chia-Hao, Chao, Kuo-Jung, Chao, Wei-Chun, Chapman, Hazel, Chen, Yu-Yun, Chisholm, Ryan A., Chu, Chengjin, Chuyong, George, Clay, Keith, Comita, Liza S., Condit, Richard, Cordell, Susan, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., de Oliveira, Alexandre Adalardo, den Ouden, Jan, Detto, Matteo, Dick, Christopher, Du, Xiaojun, Duque, Álvaro, Ediriweera, Sisira, Ellis, Erle C., Engone Obiang, Nestor Laurier, Esufali, Shameema, Ewango, Corneille E.N., Fernando, Edwino S., Filip, Jonah, Fischer, Gunter A., Foster, Robin, Giambelluca, Thomas, Giardina, Christian, Gilbert, Gregory S., Gonzalez-Akre, Erika, Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Hao, Zhanqing, Hau, Billy C.H., He, Fangliang, Ni, Hongwei, Howe, Robert W., Hubbell, Stephen P., Huth, Andreas, Inman-Narahari, Faith, Itoh, Akira, Janík, David, Jansen, Patrick A., Jiang, Mingxi, Johnson, Daniel J., Jones, F. Andrew, Kanzaki, Mamoru, Kenfack, David, Kiratiprayoon, Somboon, Král, Kamil, Krizel, Lauren, Lao, Suzanne, Larson, Andrew J., Li, Yide, Li, Xiankun, Litton, Creighton M., Liu, Yu, Liu, Shirong, Lum, Shawn K.Y., Luskin, Matthew S., Lutz, James A., Luu, Hong Truong, Ma, Keping, Makana, Jean-Remy, Malhi, Yadvinder, Martin, Adam, McCarthy, Caly, McMahon, Sean M., McShea, William J., Memiaghe, Hervé, Mi, Xiangcheng, Mitre, David, Mohamad, Mohizah, Monks, Logan, Muller-Landau, Helene C., Musili, Paul M., Myers, Jonathan A., Nathalang, Anuttara, Ngo, Kang Min, Norden, Natalia, Novotny, Vojtech, O'Brien, Michael J., Orwig, David, Ostertag, Rebecca, Papathanassiou, Konstantinos, Parker, Geoffrey G., Pérez, Rolando, Perfecto, Ivette, Phillips, Richard P., Pongpattananurak, Nantachai, Pretzsch, Hans, Ren, Haibo, Reynolds, Glen, Rodriguez, Lillian J., Russo, Sabrina E., Sack, Lawren, Sang, Weiguo, Shue, Jessica, Singh, Anudeep, Song, Guo-Zhang M., Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I-Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Swenson, Nathan G., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Sean C., Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Turner, Benjamin L., Uowolo, Amanda, Uriarte, María, Valencia, Renato, Vandermeer, John, Vicentini, Alberto, Visser, Marco, Vrska, Tomas, Wang, Xugao, Wang, Xihua, Weiblen, George D., Whitfeld, Timothy J.S., Wolf, Amy, Wright, S. Joseph, Xu, Han, Yao, Tze Leong, Yap, Sandra L., Ye, Wanhui, Yu, Mingjian, Zhang, Minhua, Zhu, Daoguang, Zhu, Li, Zimmerman, Jess K., and Zuleta, Daniel

Abstract

ForestGEO is a network of scientists and long-term forest dynamics plots (FDPs) spanning the Earth's major forest types. ForestGEO's mission is to advance understanding of the diversity and dynamics of forests and to strengthen global capacity for forest science research. ForestGEO is unique among forest plot networks in its large-scale plot dimensions, censusing of all stems ≥1 cm in diameter, inclusion of tropical, temperate and boreal forests, and investigation of additional biotic (e.g., arthropods) and abiotic (e.g., soils) drivers, which together provide a holistic view of forest functioning. The 71 FDPs in 27 countries include approximately 7.33 million living trees and about 12,000 species, representing 20% of the world's known tree diversity. With >1300 published papers, ForestGEO researchers have made significant contributions in two fundamental areas: species coexistence and diversity, and ecosystem functioning. Specifically, defining the major biotic and abiotic controls on the distribution and coexistence of species and functional types and on variation in species' demography has led to improved understanding of how the multiple dimensions of forest diversity are structured across space and time and how this diversity relates to the processes controlling the role of forests in the Earth system. Nevertheless, knowledge gaps remain that impede our ability to predict how forest diversity and function will respond to climate change and other stressors. Meeting these global research challenges requires major advances in standardizing taxonomy of tropical species, resolving the main drivers of forest dynamics, and integrating plot-based ground and remote sensing observations to scale up estimates of forest diversity and function, coupled with improved predictive models. However, they cannot be met without greater financial commitment to sustain the long-term research of ForestGEO and other forest plot networks, greatly expanded scientific capacity across the

Published
2021

5. Validation and extension of the Tea Bag Index to collect decomposition data from termite-rich ecosystems

Author

Teo, Aloysius, Kristensen, Nadiah P., Keuskamp, Joost A., Evans, Theodore A., Foo, Maosheng, Chisholm, Ryan A., Teo, Aloysius, Kristensen, Nadiah P., Keuskamp, Joost A., Evans, Theodore A., Foo, Maosheng, and Chisholm, Ryan A.

Abstract

The Tea Bag Index (TBI) is a standardised and cheap method to quantify microbial-driven decomposition by measuring the mass loss of tea within tea bags. Termites are known to damage the bags to access the content, rendering the method less suitable for termite-rich ecosystems. Extension of the TBI to accommodate and incorporate the influence of termites would broaden its applicability to include termite-rich ecosystems, such as tropical forests. We extended the original TBI by applying physical and chemical termite-exclusion methods. Tea mass loss and the proportion of tea bags detected by termites in the original TBI were also recorded to infer the role of termites in litter decomposition. TBI estimates derived from the original and extended TBI were compared, benchmarked against global estimates, and validated with time-series mass loss data. Using the original TBI, we found that termites damaged up to 80 % of tea bags and consumed the recalcitrant fraction of tea in several of them, leaving only 20 % of tea bags from which TBI estimates could be retrieved. The physical termite-exclusion treatment completely eliminated termite-infringement, thus preserving the full sample size for estimating TBI parameters. The chemical termite-exclusion treatment also successfully excluded termites, but potentially inhibited microbial decomposition and made TBI estimates unreliable. In the absence of termite-infringement, both the TBI estimates and time-series analysis revealed a low decomposition rate compared to other measurements in tropical and temperate regions. We propose an extended TBI, in which the physical termite-exclusion treatment is used to preserve the retrieval rate of TBI parameters and reliably measure microbial-driven decomposition, while the original TBI is used to incorporate the contribution of termites in driving litter mass loss. By characterising both termite- and microbial-driven decomposition, the extended TBI will provide a c

Published
2020

7. Temporal population variability in local forest communities has mixed effects on tree species richness across a latitudinal gradient

Author

Fung, Tak, Chisholm, Ryan A., Anderson‐Teixeira, Kristina, Bourg, Norm, Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Chang‐Yang, Chia‐Hao, Chitra‐Tarak, Rutuja, Chuyong, George, Condit, Richard, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., Davies, Stuart J., Ewango, Corneille E.N., Fewless, Gary, Fletcher, Christine, Gunatilleke, C.V. Savitri, Gunatilleke, I.A.U. Nimal, Hao, Zhanqing, Hogan, J. Aaron, Howe, Robert, Hsieh, Chang‐Fu, Kenfack, David, Lin, YiChing, Ma, Keping, Makana, Jean‐Remy, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William J., Mi, Xiangcheng, Nathalang, Anuttara, Ong, Perry S., Parker, Geoffrey, Rau, E‐Ping, Shue, Jessica, Su, Sheng‐Hsin, Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I‐Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Valencia, Renato, Vallejo, Martha I., Wang, Xugao, Wang, Yunquan, Wijekoon, Pushpa, Wolf, Amy, Yap, Sandra, Zimmerman, Jess, Fung, Tak, Chisholm, Ryan A., Anderson‐Teixeira, Kristina, Bourg, Norm, Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Chang‐Yang, Chia‐Hao, Chitra‐Tarak, Rutuja, Chuyong, George, Condit, Richard, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., Davies, Stuart J., Ewango, Corneille E.N., Fewless, Gary, Fletcher, Christine, Gunatilleke, C.V. Savitri, Gunatilleke, I.A.U. Nimal, Hao, Zhanqing, Hogan, J. Aaron, Howe, Robert, Hsieh, Chang‐Fu, Kenfack, David, Lin, YiChing, Ma, Keping, Makana, Jean‐Remy, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William J., Mi, Xiangcheng, Nathalang, Anuttara, Ong, Perry S., Parker, Geoffrey, Rau, E‐Ping, Shue, Jessica, Su, Sheng‐Hsin, Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I‐Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Valencia, Renato, Vallejo, Martha I., Wang, Xugao, Wang, Yunquan, Wijekoon, Pushpa, Wolf, Amy, Yap, Sandra, and Zimmerman, Jess

Abstract

Among the local processes that determine species diversity in ecological communities, fluctuation‐dependent mechanisms that are mediated by temporal variability in the abundances of species populations have received significant attention. Higher temporal variability in the abundances of species populations can increase the strength of temporal niche partitioning but can also increase the risk of species extinctions, such that the net effect on species coexistence is not clear. We quantified this temporal population variability for tree species in 21 large forest plots and found much greater variability for higher latitude plots with fewer tree species. A fitted mechanistic model showed that among the forest plots, the net effect of temporal population variability on tree species coexistence was usually negative, but sometimes positive or negligible. Therefore, our results suggest that temporal variability in the abundances of species populations has no clear negative or positive contribution to the latitudinal gradient in tree species richness.

Published
2020

10. Temporal population variability in local forest communities has mixed effects on tree species richness across a latitudinal gradient

Author

Fung, Tak, Chisholm, Ryan A., Anderson‐Teixeira, Kristina, Bourg, Norm, Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Chang‐Yang, Chia‐Hao, Chitra‐Tarak, Rutuja, Chuyong, George, Condit, Richard, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., Davies, Stuart J., Ewango, Corneille E.N., Fewless, Gary, Fletcher, Christine, Gunatilleke, C.V. Savitri, Gunatilleke, I.A.U. Nimal, Hao, Zhanqing, Hogan, J. Aaron, Howe, Robert, Hsieh, Chang‐Fu, Kenfack, David, Lin, YiChing, Ma, Keping, Makana, Jean‐Remy, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William J., Mi, Xiangcheng, Nathalang, Anuttara, Ong, Perry S., Parker, Geoffrey, Rau, E‐Ping, Shue, Jessica, Su, Sheng‐Hsin, Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I‐Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Valencia, Renato, Vallejo, Martha I., Wang, Xugao, Wang, Yunquan, Wijekoon, Pushpa, Wolf, Amy, Yap, Sandra, Zimmerman, Jess, Fung, Tak, Chisholm, Ryan A., Anderson‐Teixeira, Kristina, Bourg, Norm, Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Chang‐Yang, Chia‐Hao, Chitra‐Tarak, Rutuja, Chuyong, George, Condit, Richard, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., Davies, Stuart J., Ewango, Corneille E.N., Fewless, Gary, Fletcher, Christine, Gunatilleke, C.V. Savitri, Gunatilleke, I.A.U. Nimal, Hao, Zhanqing, Hogan, J. Aaron, Howe, Robert, Hsieh, Chang‐Fu, Kenfack, David, Lin, YiChing, Ma, Keping, Makana, Jean‐Remy, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William J., Mi, Xiangcheng, Nathalang, Anuttara, Ong, Perry S., Parker, Geoffrey, Rau, E‐Ping, Shue, Jessica, Su, Sheng‐Hsin, Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I‐Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thompson, Jill, Valencia, Renato, Vallejo, Martha I., Wang, Xugao, Wang, Yunquan, Wijekoon, Pushpa, Wolf, Amy, Yap, Sandra, and Zimmerman, Jess

Abstract

Among the local processes that determine species diversity in ecological communities, fluctuation‐dependent mechanisms that are mediated by temporal variability in the abundances of species populations have received significant attention. Higher temporal variability in the abundances of species populations can increase the strength of temporal niche partitioning but can also increase the risk of species extinctions, such that the net effect on species coexistence is not clear. We quantified this temporal population variability for tree species in 21 large forest plots and found much greater variability for higher latitude plots with fewer tree species. A fitted mechanistic model showed that among the forest plots, the net effect of temporal population variability on tree species coexistence was usually negative, but sometimes positive or negligible. Therefore, our results suggest that temporal variability in the abundances of species populations has no clear negative or positive contribution to the latitudinal gradient in tree species richness.

Published
2020

11. Data from: Patterns of nitrogen-fixing tree abundance in forests across Asia and America

Author

Menge, Duncan N.L., Chisholm, Ryan A., Davies, Stuart J., Abu Salim, Kamariah, Allen, David, Alvarez, Mauricio, Bourg, Norm, Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Butt, Nathalie, den Ouden, Jan, Jansen, Patrick, Menge, Duncan N.L., Chisholm, Ryan A., Davies, Stuart J., Abu Salim, Kamariah, Allen, David, Alvarez, Mauricio, Bourg, Norm, Brockelman, Warren Y., Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Butt, Nathalie, den Ouden, Jan, and Jansen, Patrick

Abstract

Symbiotic nitrogen (N)‐fixing trees can provide large quantities of new N to ecosystems, but only if they are sufficiently abundant. The overall abundance and latitudinal abundance distributions of N‐fixing trees are well characterised in the Americas, but less well outside the Americas. Here, we characterised the abundance of N‐fixing trees in a network of forest plots spanning five continents, ~5,000 tree species and ~4 million trees. The majority of the plots (86%) were in America or Asia. In addition, we examined whether the observed pattern of abundance of N‐fixing trees was correlated with mean annual temperature and precipitation. Outside the tropics, N‐fixing trees were consistently rare in the forest plots we examined. Within the tropics, N‐fixing trees were abundant in American but not Asian forest plots (~7% versus ~1% of basal area and stems). This disparity was not explained by mean annual temperature or precipitation. Our finding of low N‐fixing tree abundance in the Asian tropics casts some doubt on recent high estimates of N fixation rates in this region, which do not account for disparities in N‐fixing tree abundance between the Asian and American tropics. Synthesis. Inputs of nitrogen to forests depend on symbiotic nitrogen fixation, which is constrained by the abundance of N‐fixing trees. By analysing a large dataset of ~4 million trees, we found that N‐fixing trees were consistently rare in the Asian tropics as well as across higher latitudes in Asia, America and Europe. The rarity of N‐fixing trees in the Asian tropics compared with the American tropics might stem from lower intrinsic N limitation in Asian tropical forests, although direct support for any mechanism is lacking. The paucity of N‐fixing trees throughout Asian forests suggests that N inputs to the Asian tropics might be lower than previously thought.

Published
2019

12. Carryover effects from natal habitat type upon competitive ability lead to trait divergence or source-sink dynamics

Author

van Baalen, Minus, van Baalen, M ( Minus ), Kristensen, Nadiah Pardede, Johansson, Jacob, Chisholm, Ryan A, Smith, Henrik G, Kokko, Hanna, van Baalen, Minus, van Baalen, M ( Minus ), Kristensen, Nadiah Pardede, Johansson, Jacob, Chisholm, Ryan A, Smith, Henrik G, and Kokko, Hanna

Abstract

Local adaptation to rare habitats is difficult due to gene flow, but can occur if the habitat has higher productivity. Differences in offspring phenotypes have attracted little attention in this context. We model a scenario where the rarer habitat improves offspring's later competitive ability – a carryover effect that operates on top of local adaptation to one or the other habitat type. Assuming localised dispersal, so the offspring tend to settle in similar habitat to the natal type, the superior competitive ability of offspring remaining in the rarer habitat hampers immigration from the majority habitat. This initiates a positive feedback between local adaptation and trait divergence, which can thereafter be reinforced by coevolution with dispersal traits that match ecotype to habitat type. Rarity strengthens selection on dispersal traits and promotes linkage disequilibrium between locally adapted traits and ecotype‐habitat matching dispersal. We propose that carryover effects may initiate isolation by ecology.

Published
2018

13. Scale-dependent relationships between tree species richness and ecosystem function in forests

Author

Chisholm, Ryan A., Muller-Landau, Helene C., Rahman, Kassim Abdul, Bebber, Daniel P., Bin, Yue, Bohlman, Stephanie A., Bourg, Norman A., Brinks, Joshua, Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Butt, Nathalie, Cao, Honglin, Cao, Min, Cárdenas, Dairon, Chang, Li-Wan, Chiang, Jyh-Min, Chuyong, George, Condit, Richard, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., Davies, Stuart, Duque, Alvaro, Fletcher, Christine, Gunatilleke, Nimal, Gunatilleke, Savitri, Hao, Zhanqing, Harrison, Rhett D., Howe, Robert, Hsieh, Chang-Fu, Hubbell, Stephen P., Itoh, Akira, Kenfack, David, Kiratiprayoon, Somboon, Larson, Andrew J., Lian, Juyu, Lin, Dunmei, Liu, Haifeng, Lutz, James A., Ma, Keping, Malhi, Yadvinder, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William, Meegaskumbura, Madhava, Razman, Salim Mohd., Morecroft, Michael D., Nytch, Christopher J., Oliveira, Alexandre, Parker, Geoffrey G., Pulla, Sandeep, Punchi-Manage, Ruwan, Romero-Saltos, Hugo, Sang, Weiguo, Schurman, Jon, Su, Sheng-Hsin, Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I-Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thomas, Sean, Thompson, Jill, Valencia, Renato, Wolf, Amy, Yap, Sandra, Ye, Wanhui, Yuan, Zuoqiang, Zimmerman, Jess K., Chisholm, Ryan A., Muller-Landau, Helene C., Rahman, Kassim Abdul, Bebber, Daniel P., Bin, Yue, Bohlman, Stephanie A., Bourg, Norman A., Brinks, Joshua, Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Butt, Nathalie, Cao, Honglin, Cao, Min, Cárdenas, Dairon, Chang, Li-Wan, Chiang, Jyh-Min, Chuyong, George, Condit, Richard, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., Davies, Stuart, Duque, Alvaro, Fletcher, Christine, Gunatilleke, Nimal, Gunatilleke, Savitri, Hao, Zhanqing, Harrison, Rhett D., Howe, Robert, Hsieh, Chang-Fu, Hubbell, Stephen P., Itoh, Akira, Kenfack, David, Kiratiprayoon, Somboon, Larson, Andrew J., Lian, Juyu, Lin, Dunmei, Liu, Haifeng, Lutz, James A., Ma, Keping, Malhi, Yadvinder, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William, Meegaskumbura, Madhava, Razman, Salim Mohd., Morecroft, Michael D., Nytch, Christopher J., Oliveira, Alexandre, Parker, Geoffrey G., Pulla, Sandeep, Punchi-Manage, Ruwan, Romero-Saltos, Hugo, Sang, Weiguo, Schurman, Jon, Su, Sheng-Hsin, Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I-Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thomas, Sean, Thompson, Jill, Valencia, Renato, Wolf, Amy, Yap, Sandra, Ye, Wanhui, Yuan, Zuoqiang, and Zimmerman, Jess K.

Abstract

The relationship between species richness and ecosystem function, as measured by productivity or biomass, is of long-standing theoretical and practical interest in ecology. This is especially true for forests, which represent a majority of global biomass, productivity and biodiversity. Here, we conduct an analysis of relationships between tree species richness, biomass and productivity in 25 forest plots of area 8–50 ha from across the world. The data were collected using standardized protocols, obviating the need to correct for methodological differences that plague many studies on this topic. We found that at very small spatial grains (0.04 ha) species richness was generally positively related to productivity and biomass within plots, with a doubling of species richness corresponding to an average 48% increase in productivity and 53% increase in biomass. At larger spatial grains (0.25 ha, 1 ha), results were mixed, with negative relationships becoming more common. The results were qualitatively similar but much weaker when we controlled for stem density: at the 0.04 ha spatial grain, a doubling of species richness corresponded to a 5% increase in productivity and 7% increase in biomass. Productivity and biomass were themselves almost always positively related at all spatial grains. Synthesis. This is the first cross-site study of the effect of tree species richness on forest biomass and productivity that systematically varies spatial grain within a controlled methodology. The scale-dependent results are consistent with theoretical models in which sampling effects and niche complementarity dominate at small scales, while environmental gradients drive patterns at large scales. Our study shows that the relationship of tree species richness with biomass and productivity changes qualitatively when moving from scales typical of forest surveys (0.04 ha) to slightly larger scales (0.25 and 1 ha). This needs to be recognized in forest conservation policy and management.

Published
2013

14. Scale-dependent relationships between tree species richness and ecosystem function in forests

Author

Chisholm, Ryan A., Muller-Landau, Helene C., Rahman, Kassim Abdul, Bebber, Daniel P., Bin, Yue, Bohlman, Stephanie A., Bourg, Norman A., Brinks, Joshua, Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Butt, Nathalie, Cao, Honglin, Cao, Min, Cárdenas, Dairon, Chang, Li-Wan, Chiang, Jyh-Min, Chuyong, George, Condit, Richard, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., Davies, Stuart, Duque, Alvaro, Fletcher, Christine, Gunatilleke, Nimal, Gunatilleke, Savitri, Hao, Zhanqing, Harrison, Rhett D., Howe, Robert, Hsieh, Chang-Fu, Hubbell, Stephen P., Itoh, Akira, Kenfack, David, Kiratiprayoon, Somboon, Larson, Andrew J., Lian, Juyu, Lin, Dunmei, Liu, Haifeng, Lutz, James A., Ma, Keping, Malhi, Yadvinder, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William, Meegaskumbura, Madhava, Razman, Salim Mohd., Morecroft, Michael D., Nytch, Christopher J., Oliveira, Alexandre, Parker, Geoffrey G., Pulla, Sandeep, Punchi-Manage, Ruwan, Romero-Saltos, Hugo, Sang, Weiguo, Schurman, Jon, Su, Sheng-Hsin, Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I-Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thomas, Sean, Thompson, Jill, Valencia, Renato, Wolf, Amy, Yap, Sandra, Ye, Wanhui, Yuan, Zuoqiang, Zimmerman, Jess K., Chisholm, Ryan A., Muller-Landau, Helene C., Rahman, Kassim Abdul, Bebber, Daniel P., Bin, Yue, Bohlman, Stephanie A., Bourg, Norman A., Brinks, Joshua, Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Butt, Nathalie, Cao, Honglin, Cao, Min, Cárdenas, Dairon, Chang, Li-Wan, Chiang, Jyh-Min, Chuyong, George, Condit, Richard, Dattaraja, Handanakere S., Davies, Stuart, Duque, Alvaro, Fletcher, Christine, Gunatilleke, Nimal, Gunatilleke, Savitri, Hao, Zhanqing, Harrison, Rhett D., Howe, Robert, Hsieh, Chang-Fu, Hubbell, Stephen P., Itoh, Akira, Kenfack, David, Kiratiprayoon, Somboon, Larson, Andrew J., Lian, Juyu, Lin, Dunmei, Liu, Haifeng, Lutz, James A., Ma, Keping, Malhi, Yadvinder, McMahon, Sean, McShea, William, Meegaskumbura, Madhava, Razman, Salim Mohd., Morecroft, Michael D., Nytch, Christopher J., Oliveira, Alexandre, Parker, Geoffrey G., Pulla, Sandeep, Punchi-Manage, Ruwan, Romero-Saltos, Hugo, Sang, Weiguo, Schurman, Jon, Su, Sheng-Hsin, Sukumar, Raman, Sun, I-Fang, Suresh, Hebbalalu S., Tan, Sylvester, Thomas, Duncan, Thomas, Sean, Thompson, Jill, Valencia, Renato, Wolf, Amy, Yap, Sandra, Ye, Wanhui, Yuan, Zuoqiang, and Zimmerman, Jess K.

Abstract

The relationship between species richness and ecosystem function, as measured by productivity or biomass, is of long-standing theoretical and practical interest in ecology. This is especially true for forests, which represent a majority of global biomass, productivity and biodiversity. Here, we conduct an analysis of relationships between tree species richness, biomass and productivity in 25 forest plots of area 8–50 ha from across the world. The data were collected using standardized protocols, obviating the need to correct for methodological differences that plague many studies on this topic. We found that at very small spatial grains (0.04 ha) species richness was generally positively related to productivity and biomass within plots, with a doubling of species richness corresponding to an average 48% increase in productivity and 53% increase in biomass. At larger spatial grains (0.25 ha, 1 ha), results were mixed, with negative relationships becoming more common. The results were qualitatively similar but much weaker when we controlled for stem density: at the 0.04 ha spatial grain, a doubling of species richness corresponded to a 5% increase in productivity and 7% increase in biomass. Productivity and biomass were themselves almost always positively related at all spatial grains. Synthesis. This is the first cross-site study of the effect of tree species richness on forest biomass and productivity that systematically varies spatial grain within a controlled methodology. The scale-dependent results are consistent with theoretical models in which sampling effects and niche complementarity dominate at small scales, while environmental gradients drive patterns at large scales. Our study shows that the relationship of tree species richness with biomass and productivity changes qualitatively when moving from scales typical of forest surveys (0.04 ha) to slightly larger scales (0.25 and 1 ha). This needs to be recognized in forest conservation policy and management.

Published
2013

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