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Background: Manufacturers and consumers are increasingly aware that asymmetric information can lead to potential risks in food safety and supply chain integrity. The traditional paper labels, due to their limited size, are no longer able to realize the transmission of a large amount of information. Quick Response (QR) code, as one of the most versatile and commercially successful digital technologies, provides a feasible approach to connecting physical food with its relevant digital information, and its potential in information transmission has been gradually discovered and exploited in recent years – attracting increasing attention. Scope and approach: In this review, a brief overview of the QR code configuration and technical principle of information transmission is provided, along with comparisons to other digital technologies. Moreover, it provides a useful overview of the current applications of QR codes developed and practiced in information transmission. On this basis, the limitations and development direction for improving its properties are discussed. Key findings and conclusions: Food packaging QR codes are suitable for information transmission due to their large data storage and quick information access. QR codes have good performance in traceability, quality evaluation, anti-counterfeiting, and marketing. Given its limitations, the flexible combination with other complementary technologies, improving the consumers’ sense of gratification after use, and forcing and encouraging companies to implement are the possible development directions of maximizing QR code utilization in the future within the food supply chain.

Previous studies have shown that the use of labels such as “organic” or “local” may improve the perceived healthiness, attractiveness and taste evaluation of healthy food products and increase their likelihood of being purchased. The aim of this work was to examine whether labeling vegetable items could promote consumption of at least one vegetable dish among students in a university canteen. We analyzed the purchasing of vegetable dishes among 458 students during an eight-week intervention in a university canteen, where vegetable items alternatively received neutral, organic and local labels. We implemented a multilevel Bayesian analysis to incorporate prior knowledge extracted from data preceding the experiment and to account for potential confounders related to the design of the experiment. Our results suggest that the labels “organic,” “local” “organic & local” were not strongly associated with ordering at least one vegetable plate. Additional studies are warranted to further investigate the potential impact of vegetable plate labeling on customers’ purchasing choices.

To reduce obesity and thus promote healthy food choices, front-of-pack (FOP) labels have been introduced. Though FOP labels help identify healthy foods, their impact on actual food choices is rather small. A newly developed so-called swipe task was used to investigate whether the type of label used (summary vs. nutrient-specific) had differential effects on different operationalizations of the “healthier choice” measure (e.g., calories and sugar). After learning about the product offerings of a small online store, observers (N = 354) could, by means of a swipe gesture, purchase the products they needed for a weekend with six people. Observers were randomly assigned to one of five conditions, two summary label conditions (Nutri-Score and HFL), two nutrient (sugar)-specific label conditions (manga and comic), or a control condition without a label. Unexpectedly, more products (+7.3 products)—albeit mostly healthy ones—and thus more calories (+1732 kcal) were purchased in the label conditions than in the control condition. Furthermore, the tested labels had different effects with respect to the different operationalizations (e.g., manga reduced sugar purchase). We argue that the additional green-labeled healthy products purchased (in label conditions) “compensate” for the purchase of red-labeled unhealthy products (see averaging bias and licensing effect).

Context: Reducing population intakes of sugar has become a focus of many national and international public health policies. Packaged foods and beverages are key contributors to sugar intakes, and food labels can be an effective tool to reduce sugar consumption. Objective: The aim of this systematic review was to examine the influence of sugar label formats on 2 outcomes: consumers' understanding of sugar information, and the amount of sugar in consumers' food choices. Data Sources: Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, CAB Abstracts, SciELO, and the Cochrane Library databases were searched up until February 4, 2020. Study Selection: Randomized experiments or quasi-experiments were included if they investigated the influence of sugar label formats on consumers' understanding of sugar information or on the amount of sugar in consumers' food choices. Data Extraction: Data were extracted independently by 2 authors. Mean differences (MDs), standardized mean differences (SMDs), and odds ratios (ORs) plus 95%CIs were used to describe between-group differences for intervention label formats using random-effects models. Results: Twenty-three studies, which examined 39 comparisons, were included. Label formats using "high in sugar"interpretative texts (traffic light labels [MD 41.6; 95%CI 37.9-45.4] and warning signs [OR 1.33; 95%CI 1.0-1.78]) were most effective in increasing consumers' understanding of the sugar content in packaged foods. Health warning messages (SMD-0.32; 95%CI-0.43 to-0.22), graphical depictions of sugar content in teaspoons (SMD-0.32; 95%CI-0.48 to-0.17), and warning signs (SMD-0.24; 95%CI-0.35 to-0.13) were most effective for influencing consumers to choose products with lower sugar content. Conclusions: Formats that provide an interpretation of sugar information, particularly those indicating if a product is high in sugar, were more helpful than only numerical information for improving consumer understanding and promoting food choices with less sugar.

As the number of consumers voluntarily adopting a gluten-free diet continues to climb, so does the prevalence of front-of-package (FOP) labeling claims. The “Gluten-Free” FOP claim has risen in popularity and is found on a variety of food products, including product categories inherently absent of gluten. Consumers’ use of food label claims as a source of information generates a need to investigate how consumers use the “Gluten-Free” FOP claim to form opinions and perceptions about food products. This study explored the lived experiences of a parent while grocery shopping and investigated the phenomenon of how parents perceive and utilize the “Gluten-Free” FOP claim during the food decision-making process. Furthermore, this study examined consumers’ perceptions of the “Gluten-Free” FOP claim on naturally gluten-free foods and described consumer perceptions of the gluten-free diet. This study utilized a qualitative approach consisting of 11 in-depth semi-structured interviews to explore how consumers perceive and utilize the “Gluten-Free” FOP labeling claim. Individuals with a medically diagnosed reason to follow a gluten-free diet were excluded from the study. Results indicated consumers actively search for and trust the “Gluten-Free” FOP claim as well as use this claim as a heuristic tool during the decision-making process. Hollow “Gluten-Free” FOP claims confuse consumers and raise misperceptions about agricultural production and food wholesomeness. Furthermore, results found consumers believe a gluten-free diet promotes overall health and correlate gluten with carbohydrates. Results of this study provide a deeper insight into how FOP claims influence consumer opinion formation and perceptions of food products.

Objective By clearly conveying the healthiness of a food, front-of-pack (FOP) labels have the potential to influence the portion size considered appropriate for consumption. The present study examined the how the Daily Intake Guide (DIG), Multiple Traffic Lights (MTL) and Health Star Rating (HSR) FOP labels affect judgements of appropriate portion sizes of unhealthy foods compared with when no FOP label is present.Design Respondents viewed mock packages of unhealthy variations of pizzas, cookies, yoghurts and cornflakes featuring the DIG, MTL, HSR or no FOP label, and indicated the portion size they believed should be eaten of each food on a single occasion.Setting The survey was completed on the respondent's personal computer.Subjects A total of 1505 Australian adults provided 4166 ratings across 192 mock packages relating to four product categories: pizza, yoghurt, cornflakes and cookies.Results Compared with no FOP label, the HSR resulted in a small but significant reduction in the portion size selected as appropriate for consumption of pizzas and cornflakes (P<0·05). The MTL resulted in smaller portions of cornflakes being selected compared with no FOP label (P<0·05).Conclusions Respondents perceived smaller portion sizes as appropriate for some, but not all, of the foods tested when FOP labels with more interpretative formats (HSR, MTL) appeared on-pack compared with no FOP label. No effect was found for the less interpretive FOP label (the DIG). Interpretive FOP labels may have the potential to influence portion size judgements, albeit at modest levels.

OBJECTIVE: Studies have shown that the consumption of added sugars may be associated with harmful health effects. The present study investigated the presence and types of added sugars in packaged foods. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of the presence and types of added sugars in the ingredients lists of packaged foods sold in a major Brazilian supermarket. The nomenclature of ingredients classified as added sugars and their frequency were identified. Data were organised and analysed through descriptive statistics: absolute and relative frequencies of the presence of added sugars categorised by food groups were calculated, and ingredients were analysed by text mining using R statistical environment. SETTING: A supermarket in Florianópolis, a metropolis in southern Brazil. SUBJECTS: Packaged food products (n 4539) classified into eight groups. RESULTS: Of the 4539 products, 71 % had some type of added sugar. The group with the highest frequency of added sugars was 'products in which carbohydrates and fats are the main energy source' (93 %). Food groups containing predominantly salty foods had a high frequency of added sugars, such as 'meats and eggs' (61 %). In total, 179 different terms for added sugars were identified, of which sugar, maltodextrin and glucose syrup were the most frequent. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the packaged foods sold in Brazil contain added sugars, which may hamper adherence to the recommendation of limiting added sugars intake. The data may be useful for monitoring tendencies in the use of added sugars in packaged foods and as supplementary information to support the improvement of food label regulations.

© 2017 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Background The Australian Government has introduced a voluntary front-of-package labeling system that includes total sugar in the calculation. Objective Our aim was to determine the effect of substituting added sugars for total sugars when calculating Health Star Ratings (HSR) and identify whether use of added sugars improves the capacity to distinguish between core and discretionary food products. Design This study included packaged food and beverage products available in Australian supermarkets (n=3,610). The product categories included in the analyses were breakfast cereals (n=513), fruit (n=571), milk (n=309), non-alcoholic beverages (n=1,040), vegetables (n=787), and yogurt (n=390). Added sugar values were estimated for each product using a validated method. HSRs were then estimated for every product according to the established method using total sugar, and then by substituting added sugar for total sugar. The scoring system was not modified when added sugar was used in place of total sugar in the HSR calculation. Products were classified as core or discretionary based on the Australian Dietary Guidelines. To investigate whether use of added sugar in the HSR algorithm improved the distinction between core and discretionary products as defined by the Australian Dietary Guidelines, the proportion of core products that received an HSR of ≥3.5 stars and the proportion of discretionary products that received an HSR of <3.5 stars, for algorithms based upon total vs added sugars were determined. Results There were 2,263 core and 1,347 discretionary foods; 1,684 of 3,610 (47%) products contained added sugar (median 8.4 g/100 g, interquartile range=5.0 to 12.2 g). When the HSR was calculated with added sugar instead of total sugar, an additional 166 (7.3%) core products received an HSR of ≥3.5 stars and 103 (7.6%) discretionary products received a rating of ≥3.5 stars. The odds of correctly identifying a product as core vs disc

The environmental impact of the production and consumption of food is seldom depicted to consumers. The footprint of food products provides a means for consumers to compare environmental impacts across and within product groups. In this study we apply carbon, nitrogen, and water footprints in tandem and present food labels that could help inform consumers about the environmental impacts of individual food products. The footprint factors used in this study are specific to the United States, but the concept can be applied elsewhere. We propose three methods of footprint calculations: footprint weight, sustainability measures, and % daily value. We apply the three footprint calculation methods to four example labels (stars label, stoplight label, nutrition label add-on, and a detailed comparison label) that vary in design and the amount of detail provided. The stars label is simple and easily understood but provides minimal detail about the footprints. At the other end of the spectrum, the detailed comparison label gives context in relative terms (e.g., carbon emissions for equivalent distance driven) for the food product. Implementing environmental impact food labels requires additional understanding of how consumers use footprint labels, and label suitability may vary for government organizations, retail and local grocers, and farmers.

The environmental impact of the production and consumption of food is seldom depicted to consumers. The footprint of food products provides a means for consumers to compare environmental impacts across and within product groups. In this study we apply carbon, nitrogen, and water footprints in tandem and present food labels that could help inform consumers about the environmental impacts of individual food products. The footprint factors used in this study are specific to the United States, but the concept can be applied elsewhere. We propose three methods of footprint calculations: footprint weight, sustainability measures, and % daily value. We apply the three footprint calculation methods to four example labels (stars label, stoplight label, nutrition label add-on, and a detailed comparison label) that vary in design and the amount of detail provided. The stars label is simple and easily understood but provides minimal detail about the footprints. At the other end of the spectrum, the detailed comparison label gives context in relative terms (e.g., carbon emissions for equivalent distance driven) for the food product. Implementing environmental impact food labels requires additional understanding of how consumers use footprint labels, and label suitability may vary for government organizations, retail and local grocers, and farmers.

This study aimed to describe consumers’ retrospective satisfaction with food labels within the expectancy (dis)confirmation paradigm and to investigate the likelihood of food labels influencing consumers’ product choices. A quantitative, descriptive, cross-sectional survey approach was followed to explore and describe consumers’ satisfaction with attributes of and information on food labels. Self-administered questionnaires (n = 279) were distributed in Gauteng, South Africa, through convenience sampling. On average, respondents were dissatisfied with label attributes (believability, readability, comprehensibility and adequacy) and with primary information (expiry date, allergens, nutrition/health, ingredient list, quality guarantees), but satisfied with secondary information (usage instructions, manufacturer name, symbols, serving numbers, country of origin). Respondents had higher expectations of primary information and considered it more influential for their purchasing decisions and, therefore, judged the performance of this information more critically than the secondary information. When amendments to and the presentation of food label information are considered, primary information should be a priority. Consumers, who are satisfied with food labels, might be inclined to choose one product over another. This study was the first of its kind, linking satisfaction and product choice to different dimensions of food labels

This study aimed to describe consumers’ retrospective satisfaction with food labels within the expectancy (dis)confirmation paradigm and to investigate the likelihood of food labels influencing consumers’ product choices. A quantitative, descriptive, cross-sectional survey approach was followed to explore and describe consumers’ satisfaction with attributes of and information on food labels. Self-administered questionnaires (n = 279) were distributed in Gauteng, South Africa, through convenience sampling. On average, respondents were dissatisfied with label attributes (believability, readability, comprehensibility and adequacy) and with primary information (expiry date, allergens, nutrition/health, ingredient list, quality guarantees), but satisfied with secondary information (usage instructions, manufacturer name, symbols, serving numbers, country of origin). Respondents had higher expectations of primary information and considered it more influential for their purchasing decisions and, therefore, judged the performance of this information more critically than the secondary information. When amendments to and the presentation of food label information are considered, primary information should be a priority. Consumers, who are satisfied with food labels, might be inclined to choose one product over another. This study was the first of its kind, linking satisfaction and product choice to different dimensions of food labels

This study aimed to describe consumers’ retrospective satisfaction with food labels within the expectancy (dis)confirmation paradigm and to investigate the likelihood of food labels influencing consumers’ product choices. A quantitative, descriptive, cross-sectional survey approach was followed to explore and describe consumers’ satisfaction with attributes of and information on food labels. Self-administered questionnaires (n = 279) were distributed in Gauteng, South Africa, through convenience sampling. On average, respondents were dissatisfied with label attributes (believability, readability, comprehensibility and adequacy) and with primary information (expiry date, allergens, nutrition/health, ingredient list, quality guarantees), but satisfied with secondary information (usage instructions, manufacturer name, symbols, serving numbers, country of origin). Respondents had higher expectations of primary information and considered it more influential for their purchasing decisions and, therefore, judged the performance of this information more critically than the secondary information. When amendments to and the presentation of food label information are considered, primary information should be a priority. Consumers, who are satisfied with food labels, might be inclined to choose one product over another. This study was the first of its kind, linking satisfaction and product choice to different dimensions of food labels

The association of sugar intake with chronic degenerative diseases such as obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, eating disorders and caries has driven health professionals in search of new options for nutrition education and new food products. In Mexico, sugary drinks are responsible for 24 000 deaths per year; of these, between men and women under 45 years, these drinks are the cause of 22% and 33% respectively of all deaths related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease and obesity. Sugars are listed in food labels as added sugars, malt, caramel, corn syrup, corn syrup solids, inverted sugar syrup, molasses, honey, fruit juices, among others. These are reasons for teaching consumers label reading and giving them the right information for making healthy food choices. As an alternative to sugar, food industry has put on the market a series of options through low-calorie and nonnutritive sweeteners. Among the former, there are fructose, polyols and aspartame. Luo Han Guo, stevia, thaumatin, pentadin, monellin and brazzein are natural non-caloric sweetners. Among noncaloric sugar substitutes that are artificial, people can find acesulfame K, cyclamate, saccharin and sucralose. The aim of this paper is to present these substances and their effects on human health, so that the reader can have elements for making an adequate food choice., La asociación del consumo de azúcares con enfermedades crónico degenerativas como la obesidad, diabetes, dislipidemias, trastornos alimentarios y caries ha llevado a la búsqueda de opciones para la orientación alimentaria y el diseño de nuevos productos desde la industria alimentaria. En nuestro país, solamente las bebidas azucaradas son responsables de 24, 000 muertes al año; de éstas, entre hombres y mujeres menores de 45 años, dichas bebidas son causantes de 22% y 33% respectivamente de todas las muertes relacionadas con diabetes, enfermedad cardiovascular y obesidad. En los alimentos, los azúcares pueden venir listados como tal, o como azúcares añadidos, malta, caramelo, jarabe de maíz, sólidos de jarabe de maíz, azúcar invertida, melaza, miel, jugos de frutas, entre otros. Es por eso que el consumidor requiere tener conocimientos sobre lectura de etiquetas y la información adecuada para una toma de decisiones saludables. Como alternativa a los azúcares, la industria alimentaria ha puesto en el mercado una serie de propuestas a través de edulcorantes hipocalóricos y no nutritivos. Entre los primeros, se encuentran la fructuosa, los polioles y el aspartame. Los no calóricos que son naturales son el Luo Han Guo, estevia, taumatina, pentadina, monelina y brazzeína y entre los sustitutos de azúcar no calóricos que son artificiales se cuentan el acesulfame K, el ciclamato, la sacarina y la sucralosa. En este documento se hace una presentación sobre estas sustancias y su efecto en la salud, de tal forma que el lector cuente con elementos para una adecuada elección de alimentos.

Food labels are often an important source of information available to guide consumers' in-store purchases. This study aimed to determine consumers' opinions about and use of food labels and the association between these constructs with structural equation modeling in an urban–rural hybrid area context. Results from the survey (n = 912) showed that respondents mainly had positive opinions about food labels as an information source and appreciated the importance of product and origin information. Most respondents indicated pre-purchase use of labels. The structural equation model confirmed an association between respondents' food label opinions and use and suggests that these opinions could be used to anticipate label use. It is thus important to offer label information that would evoke favorable opinions and that might directly contribute to consumers' decisions to purchase the product in-store.

Food labels are often an important source of information available to guide consumers' in-store purchases. This study aimed to determine consumers' opinions about and use of food labels and the association between these constructs with structural equation modeling in an urban–rural hybrid area context. Results from the survey (n = 912) showed that respondents mainly had positive opinions about food labels as an information source and appreciated the importance of product and origin information. Most respondents indicated pre-purchase use of labels. The structural equation model confirmed an association between respondents' food label opinions and use and suggests that these opinions could be used to anticipate label use. It is thus important to offer label information that would evoke favorable opinions and that might directly contribute to consumers' decisions to purchase the product in-store.

Food labels are often an important source of information available to guide consumers' in-store purchases. This study aimed to determine consumers' opinions about and use of food labels and the association between these constructs with structural equation modeling in an urban–rural hybrid area context. Results from the survey (n = 912) showed that respondents mainly had positive opinions about food labels as an information source and appreciated the importance of product and origin information. Most respondents indicated pre-purchase use of labels. The structural equation model confirmed an association between respondents' food label opinions and use and suggests that these opinions could be used to anticipate label use. It is thus important to offer label information that would evoke favorable opinions and that might directly contribute to consumers' decisions to purchase the product in-store.

Consumers receive food-related information from various sources and strive to make informed food choices regarding their health, lifestyle and belief. To be effective and reliable, the information consumers receive needs to be from a credible source and delivered to them in a way they trust. The aim of this study was to investigate the sources and media channels of that information consumer trust. An online and hardcopy survey of 298 consumers currently living in Australia was carried out. Many consumers believe that the source of food product information is important (87%). As a source of general and nutritional information, Health Professionals, Scientists and Government sources are the most trusted sources, with at least 80% of participants confident of the information coming from these sources. Retailer advertising and social media are the least trusted sources with just 29% and 11%, respectively, confident of these sources. As a delivery medium, printed food labels (67%) and printed brochures or fact sheets (56%) remain the most trusted delivery media compared with electronic media, such as mobile phone or the Internet.

Objective To determine the ability of consumers to: locate and manipulate food label information; assess the accuracy of nutrient content claims and which health/nutrient claims are allowed; and identify symbols on food labels. Associations pertaining to use and knowledge regarding food label information were also determined for consumers from different demographic and related groups. Design An exploratory descriptive study was undertaken, employing a face-to-face survey focusing on demographic information, shopping behaviour, nutrition is important beliefs, label use, label knowledge and label preference and information sources. Setting Selected public locations in Potchefstroom in the North West Province of South Africa. Subjects Respondents (n 229) complying with set inclusion criteria were recruited through purposive sampling. Results The results indicated respondents’ general health and label awareness, as most of them (>80 %) could locate label information and identify symbols and specific nutrient content claims although only 53 % were able to calculate the number of servings. Nevertheless, an inability was found to assess the accuracy of some nutrient content claims and permissible health/nutrient claims. More educated, younger, Afrikaans- and English-speaking respondents seemed to be more knowledgeable regarding food label information. Conclusions Respondents who were informed about nutrition were also informed about label information, while label reading practices resulted in label-influenced purchasing decisions. Educational programmes on food labels should start with nutritional background that could be implemented by consumers during label reading and purchasing decisions.

Objective To determine the ability of consumers to: locate and manipulate food label information; assess the accuracy of nutrient content claims and which health/nutrient claims are allowed; and identify symbols on food labels. Associations pertaining to use and knowledge regarding food label information were also determined for consumers from different demographic and related groups. Design An exploratory descriptive study was undertaken, employing a face-to-face survey focusing on demographic information, shopping behaviour, nutrition is important beliefs, label use, label knowledge and label preference and information sources. Setting Selected public locations in Potchefstroom in the North West Province of South Africa. Subjects Respondents (n 229) complying with set inclusion criteria were recruited through purposive sampling. Results The results indicated respondents’ general health and label awareness, as most of them (>80 %) could locate label information and identify symbols and specific nutrient content claims although only 53 % were able to calculate the number of servings. Nevertheless, an inability was found to assess the accuracy of some nutrient content claims and permissible health/nutrient claims. More educated, younger, Afrikaans- and English-speaking respondents seemed to be more knowledgeable regarding food label information. Conclusions Respondents who were informed about nutrition were also informed about label information, while label reading practices resulted in label-influenced purchasing decisions. Educational programmes on food labels should start with nutritional background that could be implemented by consumers during label reading and purchasing decisions.

Objective To determine the ability of consumers to: locate and manipulate food label information; assess the accuracy of nutrient content claims and which health/nutrient claims are allowed; and identify symbols on food labels. Associations pertaining to use and knowledge regarding food label information were also determined for consumers from different demographic and related groups. Design An exploratory descriptive study was undertaken, employing a face-to-face survey focusing on demographic information, shopping behaviour, nutrition is important beliefs, label use, label knowledge and label preference and information sources. Setting Selected public locations in Potchefstroom in the North West Province of South Africa. Subjects Respondents (n 229) complying with set inclusion criteria were recruited through purposive sampling. Results The results indicated respondents’ general health and label awareness, as most of them (>80 %) could locate label information and identify symbols and specific nutrient content claims although only 53 % were able to calculate the number of servings. Nevertheless, an inability was found to assess the accuracy of some nutrient content claims and permissible health/nutrient claims. More educated, younger, Afrikaans- and English-speaking respondents seemed to be more knowledgeable regarding food label information. Conclusions Respondents who were informed about nutrition were also informed about label information, while label reading practices resulted in label-influenced purchasing decisions. Educational programmes on food labels should start with nutritional background that could be implemented by consumers during label reading and purchasing decisions.

Objective: To identify the information that adult consumers use on food labels, the difficulties they experience when using food labels and their reasons for not always using food labels. The relationship between their understanding of the information on the food label and their ability to make informed food choices was also investigated by means of their being required to perform labelling tasks. Design: A cross-sectional and descriptive research approach was followed. Data were collected by means of the administration of questionnaires. Setting: Selected supermarkets in Potchefstroom and Klerksdorp in the North West Province, South Africa. Subjects: Questionnaires were administered to 174 consumers of African descent and Caucasians, ≥18 years of age, who were involved in purchasing household food products. Results: The information that is mostly used on food labels includes the expiry date, the list of ingredients and nutritional information, such as fat and cholesterol content. The difficulties associated with food labels were indicated mainly as being the font size of the print, whereas the reasons for not reading food labels were related to product attributes (‘taste and price are more important than is the nutritional content of the food product’), demographic characteristics (‘lack of education and nutritional knowledge’) and situational factors (‘experiencing time constraints’). Conclusions: Results from the present study indicated that the expiry date was the most important information on a food label used by consumers. Scores from the labelling tasks showed that the respondents did not always understand how to use the information on food labels in order to make informed food choices. Barriers to consumer understanding and the use of food labels are highlighted. Improvements on current food labels in South Africa are suggested. Guidelines for consumer education regarding the use of food labels are also rovided.

Die vorliegende Dissertation setzt sich damit auseinander, wie das Zusammenspiel von essensbezogener Umwelt und Kognition Ernährungsentscheidungen beeinflusst. Im ersten Manuskript, “When Diets Last: Lower Cognitive Complexity Increases Diet Adherence” wird die Bedeutung der kognitiven Komplexität von Ernährungsregeln für das Einhalten einer Diät untersucht. Können Diäten scheitern, weil sie aus kognitiver Perspektive zu komplex sind, z.B. weil sich Diäthaltende nicht alle wichtigen Informationen merken oder verarbeiten können? 1136 Diäthaltende nahmen an einer längsschnittlichen Onlinestudie teil. Vorangegangenes Diätverhalten, Selbstwirksamkeit, Planung und wahrgenommene Regelschwierigkeit erhöhten das Risiko, die Diät vorzeitig aufzugeben, wobei Selbstwirksamkeit und wahrgenommene Regelschwierigkeit die einflussreichsten Faktoren waren. Im zweiten Manuskript „Meat Label Design: Effects on Stage Progression, Risk Perception, and Product Evaluation” wird der Einfluss gesundheitsrelevanter Information auf Labeln für Produktbewertung und Intention, Tierhaltung und Inhaltsstoffe von Lebensmitteln in die Kaufentscheidung einzubeziehen, untersucht. Es wurde betrachtet, wie Inhalt und Kontext (separate versus conjoint Darbietung) der Labelinformation die Bewertung von Fleischprodukten beeinflusst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich bei einer conjoint im Gegensatz zur separaten Darbietung die Bewertung der Produkte umkehrt. Darüber hinaus hatten Personen, die zuvor nicht motiviert waren gesundheitsrelevante Aspekte in ihr Einkaufsverhalten einzubeziehen, nach Betrachten der Label eine höhere Intention diese zu berücksichtigen. Im dritten Manuskript, „Predicting Children’s Meal Preferences: How Much Do Parents Know?“, wurden Präferenzvorhersagen bezüglich der Essensentscheidungen Anderer erforscht. Es wurde untersucht, wie gut und mit Hilfe welcher Information Eltern die Mittagessenpräferenzen ihrer Kinder vorhersagen. Die Vorhersagegenauigkeit der Eltern entsprach der Stabi, This dissertation focuses on food-related decision making, in particular, how food related environments and cognition interact to determine people’s food choices. The first manuscript, “When Diets Last: Lower Cognitive Complexity Increases Diet Adherence,” investigates the role of the cognitive complexity in diet adherence. Can weight loss diets fail because they are too complicated from a cognitive point of view, meaning that dieters are not able to recall or process the diet rules? The impact of excessive cognitive demands on diet adherence were investigated with 1,136 dieters in a longitudinal online-questionnaire. We measured perceived rule complexity controlling for other factors known to influence adherence. Previous diet behavior, self-efficacy, planning and perceived rule complexity predicted an increased risk to quit the diet prematurely, with self-efficacy and diet complexity being the strongest factors. The second manuscript, “Meat Label Design: Effects on Stage Progression, Risk Perception, and Product Evaluation,” presents two studies which tested the impact of health-related meat labels on product evaluation and intention. Specifically, the studies examined how informational content and the context (separate vs. conjoint evaluation) in which labels are assessed influence the evaluation of meat products. The results showed that conjoint assessment of labels can lead to contrary product rankings compared to separate evaluations. Moreover, the results suggest that being exposed to food labels containing specific health-relevant information can increase motivation to consider health aspects in those consumers without previous intention to do so. The third manuscript, “Predicting Children’s Meal Preferences: How Much Do Parents Know?” investigated prediction behavior concerning other people’s food choices. In particular, it asked how accurately and what cues parents use to predict their children’s meal choices. Overall, parents’ prediction accuracy matched

Die vorliegende Dissertation setzt sich damit auseinander, wie das Zusammenspiel von essensbezogener Umwelt und Kognition Ernährungsentscheidungen beeinflusst. Im ersten Manuskript, “When Diets Last: Lower Cognitive Complexity Increases Diet Adherence” wird die Bedeutung der kognitiven Komplexität von Ernährungsregeln für das Einhalten einer Diät untersucht. Können Diäten scheitern, weil sie aus kognitiver Perspektive zu komplex sind, z.B. weil sich Diäthaltende nicht alle wichtigen Informationen merken oder verarbeiten können? 1136 Diäthaltende nahmen an einer längsschnittlichen Onlinestudie teil. Vorangegangenes Diätverhalten, Selbstwirksamkeit, Planung und wahrgenommene Regelschwierigkeit erhöhten das Risiko, die Diät vorzeitig aufzugeben, wobei Selbstwirksamkeit und wahrgenommene Regelschwierigkeit die einflussreichsten Faktoren waren. Im zweiten Manuskript „Meat Label Design: Effects on Stage Progression, Risk Perception, and Product Evaluation” wird der Einfluss gesundheitsrelevanter Information auf Labeln für Produktbewertung und Intention, Tierhaltung und Inhaltsstoffe von Lebensmitteln in die Kaufentscheidung einzubeziehen, untersucht. Es wurde betrachtet, wie Inhalt und Kontext (separate versus conjoint Darbietung) der Labelinformation die Bewertung von Fleischprodukten beeinflusst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich bei einer conjoint im Gegensatz zur separaten Darbietung die Bewertung der Produkte umkehrt. Darüber hinaus hatten Personen, die zuvor nicht motiviert waren gesundheitsrelevante Aspekte in ihr Einkaufsverhalten einzubeziehen, nach Betrachten der Label eine höhere Intention diese zu berücksichtigen. Im dritten Manuskript, „Predicting Children’s Meal Preferences: How Much Do Parents Know?“, wurden Präferenzvorhersagen bezüglich der Essensentscheidungen Anderer erforscht. Es wurde untersucht, wie gut und mit Hilfe welcher Information Eltern die Mittagessenpräferenzen ihrer Kinder vorhersagen. Die Vorhersagegenauigkeit der Eltern entsprach der Stabi, This dissertation focuses on food-related decision making, in particular, how food related environments and cognition interact to determine people’s food choices. The first manuscript, “When Diets Last: Lower Cognitive Complexity Increases Diet Adherence,” investigates the role of the cognitive complexity in diet adherence. Can weight loss diets fail because they are too complicated from a cognitive point of view, meaning that dieters are not able to recall or process the diet rules? The impact of excessive cognitive demands on diet adherence were investigated with 1,136 dieters in a longitudinal online-questionnaire. We measured perceived rule complexity controlling for other factors known to influence adherence. Previous diet behavior, self-efficacy, planning and perceived rule complexity predicted an increased risk to quit the diet prematurely, with self-efficacy and diet complexity being the strongest factors. The second manuscript, “Meat Label Design: Effects on Stage Progression, Risk Perception, and Product Evaluation,” presents two studies which tested the impact of health-related meat labels on product evaluation and intention. Specifically, the studies examined how informational content and the context (separate vs. conjoint evaluation) in which labels are assessed influence the evaluation of meat products. The results showed that conjoint assessment of labels can lead to contrary product rankings compared to separate evaluations. Moreover, the results suggest that being exposed to food labels containing specific health-relevant information can increase motivation to consider health aspects in those consumers without previous intention to do so. The third manuscript, “Predicting Children’s Meal Preferences: How Much Do Parents Know?” investigated prediction behavior concerning other people’s food choices. In particular, it asked how accurately and what cues parents use to predict their children’s meal choices. Overall, parents’ prediction accuracy matched

Health claims for foods are permitted in an increasing number of countries but there are very few studies evaluating the effect of such claims on purchase behavior and consumer health. There are significant differences between countries, but in general consumers see health claims as useful, they prefer short succinct wording rather than long and complex claims, and they believe claims should be approved by government. Consumers view a food as healthier if it carries a health claim and this “halo” effect may discourage them seeking further nutrition information. Consumers do not clearly distinguish between nutrient content, structure-function and health claims. There is some evidence that use of health claims improves the quality of dietary choices and knowledge of diet-disease relationships.

Health claims for foods are permitted in an increasing number of countries but there are very few studies evaluating the effect of such claims on purchase behavior and consumer health. There are significant differences between countries, but in general consumers see health claims as useful, they prefer short succinct wording rather than long and complex claims, and they believe claims should be approved by government. Consumers view a food as healthier if it carries a health claim and this “halo” effect may discourage them seeking further nutrition information. Consumers do not clearly distinguish between nutrient content, structure-function and health claims. There is some evidence that use of health claims improves the quality of dietary choices and knowledge of diet-disease relationships.

Health claims for foods are permitted in an increasing number of countries but there are very few studies evaluating the effect of such claims on purchase behavior and consumer health. There are significant differences between countries, but in general consumers see health claims as useful, they prefer short succinct wording rather than long and complex claims, and they believe claims should be approved by government. Consumers view a food as healthier if it carries a health claim and this “halo” effect may discourage them seeking further nutrition information. Consumers do not clearly distinguish between nutrient content, structure-function and health claims. There is some evidence that use of health claims improves the quality of dietary choices and knowledge of diet-disease relationships.

Health claims for foods are permitted in an increasing number of countries but there are very few studies evaluating the effect of such claims on purchase behavior and consumer health. There are significant differences between countries, but in general consumers see health claims as useful, they prefer short succinct wording rather than long and complex claims, and they believe claims should be approved by government. Consumers view a food as healthier if it carries a health claim and this “halo” effect may discourage them seeking further nutrition information. Consumers do not clearly distinguish between nutrient content, structure-function and health claims. There is some evidence that use of health claims improves the quality of dietary choices and knowledge of diet-disease relationships.

Health claims for foods are permitted in an increasing number of countries but there are very few studies evaluating the effect of such claims on purchase behavior and consumer health. There are significant differences between countries, but in general consumers see health claims as useful, they prefer short succinct wording rather than long and complex claims, and they believe claims should be approved by government. Consumers view a food as healthier if it carries a health claim and this “halo” effect may discourage them seeking further nutrition information. Consumers do not clearly distinguish between nutrient content, structure-function and health claims. There is some evidence that use of health claims improves the quality of dietary choices and knowledge of diet-disease relationships.