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Areas beyond national jurisdiction or the high seas are vital areas for biodiversity and marine resources in our oceans, yet the protection and conservation of this global resource is insufficient due to absence of international agreement concerning the matter. Therefore, the new Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) agreement was recently agreed upon, with the objective of ensuring protection for these resources.This study endeavours to assess the applicability of Ostrom's and Stern'sprinciples, as the theoretical frameworks for sustainable governance of global commons, on the BBNJ agreement. By employing deductive reasoning, this study compares and contrasts the principles proposed by Ostrom and Stern, using them as lenses to examine the agreement. As a case study, this research investigates the utilization of international agreements as integral components of international law for the governance of shared resources. Conducted as a qualitative desk study, the analysis involved scrutinizing the BBNJ agreement to identify keywords and themes associated with eachprinciple. The study’s findings reveal that Ostrom's and Stern's principles exhibit varying degrees of applicability. Despite sharing certain similarities, they embody distinct foundational approaches, with Stern's principles demonstrating better applicability to the governance of global commons. The study suggests that the BBNJ agreement holds the potential to govern the global commons in a sustainable manner.

Areas beyond national jurisdiction or the high seas are vital areas for biodiversity and marine resources in our oceans, yet the protection and conservation of this global resource is insufficient due to absence of international agreement concerning the matter. Therefore, the new Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) agreement was recently agreed upon, with the objective of ensuring protection for these resources.This study endeavours to assess the applicability of Ostrom's and Stern'sprinciples, as the theoretical frameworks for sustainable governance of global commons, on the BBNJ agreement. By employing deductive reasoning, this study compares and contrasts the principles proposed by Ostrom and Stern, using them as lenses to examine the agreement. As a case study, this research investigates the utilization of international agreements as integral components of international law for the governance of shared resources. Conducted as a qualitative desk study, the analysis involved scrutinizing the BBNJ agreement to identify keywords and themes associated with eachprinciple. The study’s findings reveal that Ostrom's and Stern's principles exhibit varying degrees of applicability. Despite sharing certain similarities, they embody distinct foundational approaches, with Stern's principles demonstrating better applicability to the governance of global commons. The study suggests that the BBNJ agreement holds the potential to govern the global commons in a sustainable manner.

To what extent does public international law that generally applies in our global commons enable a tragedy of the commons in the global commons? The theory of the tragedy of the commons describes the plights of overuse and degradation that shared resources face when subject to, inter alia, a freedom of use, and the theory is often applied to criticize certain positive emanations of public international law in the global commons. As the theory is routinely used in the context of economic approaches to law and commons, the method employed is a positive economic analysis of international law. This encompasses an interdisciplinary approach where the legal analysis is preceded by frameworks that elaborate on the various component parts of the theory of the tragedy of the commons. With that in mind, the dissertation produces the following main arguments that answer the main question. First, the global commons are the resource domains we often refer to as areas beyond national jurisdiction. These areas include the oceans, the atmosphere and outer space, all of which contain tragic commons resources. Secondly, tragedy mirrors individual rationality, and States are tragic actors that embody such rational self-interest. State sovereignty in international law reflects such tragedy, and other constructs, such as the Lotus presumption, facilitate and extend such tragedy to the global commons. Thirdly, all global commons have tragic open-access freedoms to exploit resources. Such tragic freedoms are evidenced by the freedom of the seas, the freedom of the air, and the freedom of outer space, as well as by surrounding rules that ensure a non-excludable tragic freedom. Fourthly, and lastly, tragedy is perpetuated with faulty general solutions in international law because States fail to avert the hurdles of collective action and their own self-interest. These failed solutions include treaty law that lacks universal adherence and holistic subject matter, and customary international l

To what extent does public international law that generally applies in our global commons enable a tragedy of the commons in the global commons? The theory of the tragedy of the commons describes the plights of overuse and degradation that shared resources face when subject to, inter alia, a freedom of use, and the theory is often applied to criticize certain positive emanations of public international law in the global commons. As the theory is routinely used in the context of economic approaches to law and commons, the method employed is a positive economic analysis of international law. This encompasses an interdisciplinary approach where the legal analysis is preceded by frameworks that elaborate on the various component parts of the theory of the tragedy of the commons. With that in mind, the dissertation produces the following main arguments that answer the main question. First, the global commons are the resource domains we often refer to as areas beyond national jurisdiction. These areas include the oceans, the atmosphere and outer space, all of which contain tragic commons resources. Secondly, tragedy mirrors individual rationality, and States are tragic actors that embody such rational self-interest. State sovereignty in international law reflects such tragedy, and other constructs, such as the Lotus presumption, facilitate and extend such tragedy to the global commons. Thirdly, all global commons have tragic open-access freedoms to exploit resources. Such tragic freedoms are evidenced by the freedom of the seas, the freedom of the air, and the freedom of outer space, as well as by surrounding rules that ensure a non-excludable tragic freedom. Fourthly, and lastly, tragedy is perpetuated with faulty general solutions in international law because States fail to avert the hurdles of collective action and their own self-interest. These failed solutions include treaty law that lacks universal adherence and holistic subject matter, and customary international l

To what extent does public international law that generally applies in our global commons enable a tragedy of the commons in the global commons? The theory of the tragedy of the commons describes the plights of overuse and degradation that shared resources face when subject to, inter alia, a freedom of use, and the theory is often applied to criticize certain positive emanations of public international law in the global commons. As the theory is routinely used in the context of economic approaches to law and commons, the method employed is a positive economic analysis of international law. This encompasses an interdisciplinary approach where the legal analysis is preceded by frameworks that elaborate on the various component parts of the theory of the tragedy of the commons. With that in mind, the dissertation produces the following main arguments that answer the main question. First, the global commons are the resource domains we often refer to as areas beyond national jurisdiction. These areas include the oceans, the atmosphere and outer space, all of which contain tragic commons resources. Secondly, tragedy mirrors individual rationality, and States are tragic actors that embody such rational self-interest. State sovereignty in international law reflects such tragedy, and other constructs, such as the Lotus presumption, facilitate and extend such tragedy to the global commons. Thirdly, all global commons have tragic open-access freedoms to exploit resources. Such tragic freedoms are evidenced by the freedom of the seas, the freedom of the air, and the freedom of outer space, as well as by surrounding rules that ensure a non-excludable tragic freedom. Fourthly, and lastly, tragedy is perpetuated with faulty general solutions in international law because States fail to avert the hurdles of collective action and their own self-interest. These failed solutions include treaty law that lacks universal adherence and holistic subject matter, and customary international l

To what extent does public international law that generally applies in our global commons enable a tragedy of the commons in the global commons? The theory of the tragedy of the commons describes the plights of overuse and degradation that shared resources face when subject to, inter alia, a freedom of use, and the theory is often applied to criticize certain positive emanations of public international law in the global commons. As the theory is routinely used in the context of economic approaches to law and commons, the method employed is a positive economic analysis of international law. This encompasses an interdisciplinary approach where the legal analysis is preceded by frameworks that elaborate on the various component parts of the theory of the tragedy of the commons. With that in mind, the dissertation produces the following main arguments that answer the main question. First, the global commons are the resource domains we often refer to as areas beyond national jurisdiction. These areas include the oceans, the atmosphere and outer space, all of which contain tragic commons resources. Secondly, tragedy mirrors individual rationality, and States are tragic actors that embody such rational self-interest. State sovereignty in international law reflects such tragedy, and other constructs, such as the Lotus presumption, facilitate and extend such tragedy to the global commons. Thirdly, all global commons have tragic open-access freedoms to exploit resources. Such tragic freedoms are evidenced by the freedom of the seas, the freedom of the air, and the freedom of outer space, as well as by surrounding rules that ensure a non-excludable tragic freedom. Fourthly, and lastly, tragedy is perpetuated with faulty general solutions in international law because States fail to avert the hurdles of collective action and their own self-interest. These failed solutions include treaty law that lacks universal adherence and holistic subject matter, and customary international l

There is a need for environmental sustainability also beyond the atmosphere: Human activities are causing a tragedy of the commons in outer space, and most of the world population does not know anything about it. Outer space has become a non-cooperative game for a few players with infinite resources, in an environment with limited resources. The threat of space debris is real and governments will spend hundreds of millions in the following years trying to solve it, by using the money of unaware taxpayers. This is the legacy for the future generations of space citizens. With this graduation project I aim at raising awareness about the space debris issue and at enabling people to give a small individual contribution, which can be worth much as a collective action. I designed a cultural metaverse to educate the new generations of space citizens through the use of advanced immersive technologies. People can get access to its services by purchasing a NFT connected to a specific piece of debris in orbit. Once the piece is actually removed the NFT becomes part of the Museum of Space Resilience, a virtual environment paying a tribute to the NFT owner, to the company who made the removal mission possible and to the government that allowed it. The initiative is intended as non for profit, since all the income generated will be spent to fund other removal missions, in a circular business model. A cosmopolitan approach to help humanity make space truly democratic, by turning space situational awareness into a civilian service. My research is based on the most recent theories about systemic transitions (Geels, 2017) and governance of the commons "beyond markets and states" (Ostrom, 2010). As a designer, I have applied speculative processes and co-generative methods to envision alternative futures for space. In this way, I have demonstrated how the so-called "cryptocommons" can represent a novel strategic use of blockchain technologies to rebalance economies tow, Strategic Product Design

To what extent does public international law that generally applies in our global commons enable a tragedy of the commons in the global commons? The theory of the tragedy of the commons describes the plights of overuse and degradation that shared resources face when subject to, inter alia, a freedom of use, and the theory is often applied to criticize certain positive emanations of public international law in the global commons. As the theory is routinely used in the context of economic approaches to law and commons, the method employed is a positive economic analysis of international law. This encompasses an interdisciplinary approach where the legal analysis is preceded by frameworks that elaborate on the various component parts of the theory of the tragedy of the commons. With that in mind, the dissertation produces the following main arguments that answer the main question. First, the global commons are the resource domains we often refer to as areas beyond national jurisdiction. These areas include the oceans, the atmosphere and outer space, all of which contain tragic commons resources. Secondly, tragedy mirrors individual rationality, and States are tragic actors that embody such rational self-interest. State sovereignty in international law reflects such tragedy, and other constructs, such as the Lotus presumption, facilitate and extend such tragedy to the global commons. Thirdly, all global commons have tragic open-access freedoms to exploit resources. Such tragic freedoms are evidenced by the freedom of the seas, the freedom of the air, and the freedom of outer space, as well as by surrounding rules that ensure a non-excludable tragic freedom. Fourthly, and lastly, tragedy is perpetuated with faulty general solutions in international law because States fail to avert the hurdles of collective action and their own self-interest. These failed solutions include treaty law that lacks universal adherence and holistic subject matter, and customary international l

There is a need for environmental sustainability also beyond the atmosphere: Human activities are causing a tragedy of the commons in outer space, and most of the world population does not know anything about it. Outer space has become a non-cooperative game for a few players with infinite resources, in an environment with limited resources. The threat of space debris is real and governments will spend hundreds of millions in the following years trying to solve it, by using the money of unaware taxpayers. This is the legacy for the future generations of space citizens. With this graduation project I aim at raising awareness about the space debris issue and at enabling people to give a small individual contribution, which can be worth much as a collective action. I designed a cultural metaverse to educate the new generations of space citizens through the use of advanced immersive technologies. People can get access to its services by purchasing a NFT connected to a specific piece of debris in orbit. Once the piece is actually removed the NFT becomes part of the Museum of Space Resilience, a virtual environment paying a tribute to the NFT owner, to the company who made the removal mission possible and to the government that allowed it. The initiative is intended as non for profit, since all the income generated will be spent to fund other removal missions, in a circular business model. A cosmopolitan approach to help humanity make space truly democratic, by turning space situational awareness into a civilian service. My research is based on the most recent theories about systemic transitions (Geels, 2017) and governance of the commons "beyond markets and states" (Ostrom, 2010). As a designer, I have applied speculative processes and co-generative methods to envision alternative futures for space. In this way, I have demonstrated how the so-called "cryptocommons" can represent a novel strategic use of blockchain technologies to rebalance economies tow, Strategic Product Design

Global scientific assessments increasingly reach the conclusion that transformative change of global production and consumption systems is necessary to safeguard and maintain global commons, such as biodiversity, natural forests and the ocean, and to stabilise climate at the global scale. Against this background the present study analyses the conclusions of global assessments and derives recommendations on how to increase the transformative potential of international negotiations and agreements as well as development cooperation programs, projects, and initiatives. The study develops a conceptual framework building on the academic literature and argues that interventions are much more likely to achieve transformation to sustainability if they are embedded within a more comprehensive framing of transformative change consisting of 1. a compelling transformative vision, 2. knowledge on systemic change, 3. navigation of the dynamics inherent in changing development pathways, and 4. emancipated agency providing room for inclusive deliberation and 5. combine transformative modes of governance. The study identifies core challenges and gaps for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity in general and for forests and the ocean by (i) examining the recommendations from global assessments and reports on the state of nature and the environment, and (ii) by analysing international cooperation projects for biodiversity, forests and the ocean with regard to their transformative potential. Finally, the study provides recommendations on how Germany can support transformation in the context of international and development cooperation.

Global scientific assessments increasingly reach the conclusion that transformative change of global production and consumption systems is necessary to safeguard and maintain global commons, such as biodiversity, natural forests and the ocean, and to stabilise climate at the global scale. Against this background the present study analyses the conclusions of global assessments and derives recommendations on how to increase the transformative potential of international negotiations and agreements as well as development cooperation programs, projects, and initiatives. The study develops a conceptual framework building on the academic literature and argues that interventions are much more likely to achieve transformation to sustainability if they are embedded within a more comprehensive framing of transformative change consisting of 1. a compelling transformative vision, 2. knowledge on systemic change, 3. navigation of the dynamics inherent in changing development pathways, and 4. emancipated agency providing room for inclusive deliberation and 5. combine transformative modes of governance. The study identifies core challenges and gaps for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity in general and for forests and the ocean by (i) examining the recommendations from global assessments and reports on the state of nature and the environment, and (ii) by analysing international cooperation projects for biodiversity, forests and the ocean with regard to their transformative potential. Finally, the study provides recommendations on how Germany can support transformation in the context of international and development cooperation.

The phenomenon of collective action and the origin of collective action problems have been extensively and systematically studied in the social sciences. Yet, while we have substantial knowledge about the factors promoting collective action at the local level, we know far less about how these insights travel to large-scale collective action problems. Such problems, however, are at the heart of humanity's most pressing challenges, including climate change, large-scale natural resource depletion, biodiversity loss, nuclear proliferation, antibiotic resistance due to overconsumption of antibiotics, and pollution. In this paper, we suggest an analytical framework that captures the theoretical understanding of preconditions for large-scale collective action. This analytical framework aims at supporting future empirical analyses of how to cope with and overcome larger-scale collective action problems. More specifically, we (i) define and describe the main characteristics of a large-scale collective action problem and (ii) explain why voluntary and, in particular, spontaneous large-scale collective action among individual actors becomes more improbable as the collective action problem becomes larger, thus demanding interventions by an external authority (a third party) for such action to be generated. Based on this, we (iii) outline an analytical framework that illustrates the connection between third-party interventions and large-scale collective action. We conclude by suggesting avenues for future research.

The phenomenon of collective action and the origin of collective action problems have been extensively and systematically studied in the social sciences. Yet, while we have substantial knowledge about the factors promoting collective action at the local level, we know far less about how these insights travel to large-scale collective action problems. Such problems, however, are at the heart of humanity's most pressing challenges, including climate change, large-scale natural resource depletion, biodiversity loss, nuclear proliferation, antibiotic resistance due to overconsumption of antibiotics, and pollution. In this paper, we suggest an analytical framework that captures the theoretical understanding of preconditions for large-scale collective action. This analytical framework aims at supporting future empirical analyses of how to cope with and overcome larger-scale collective action problems. More specifically, we (i) define and describe the main characteristics of a large-scale collective action problem and (ii) explain why voluntary and, in particular, spontaneous large-scale collective action among individual actors becomes more improbable as the collective action problem becomes larger, thus demanding interventions by an external authority (a third party) for such action to be generated. Based on this, we (iii) outline an analytical framework that illustrates the connection between third-party interventions and large-scale collective action. We conclude by suggesting avenues for future research.

The phenomenon of collective action and the origin of collective action problems have been extensively and systematically studied in the social sciences. Yet, while we have substantial knowledge about the factors promoting collective action at the local level, we know far less about how these insights travel to large-scale collective action problems. Such problems, however, are at the heart of humanity's most pressing challenges, including climate change, large-scale natural resource depletion, biodiversity loss, nuclear proliferation, antibiotic resistance due to overconsumption of antibiotics, and pollution. In this paper, we suggest an analytical framework that captures the theoretical understanding of preconditions for large-scale collective action. This analytical framework aims at supporting future empirical analyses of how to cope with and overcome larger-scale collective action problems. More specifically, we (i) define and describe the main characteristics of a large-scale collective action problem and (ii) explain why voluntary and, in particular, spontaneous large-scale collective action among individual actors becomes more improbable as the collective action problem becomes larger, thus demanding interventions by an external authority (a third party) for such action to be generated. Based on this, we (iii) outline an analytical framework that illustrates the connection between third-party interventions and large-scale collective action. We conclude by suggesting avenues for future research.

The phenomenon of collective action and the origin of collective action problems have been extensively and systematically studied in the social sciences. Yet, while we have substantial knowledge about the factors promoting collective action at the local level, we know far less about how these insights travel to large-scale collective action problems. Such problems, however, are at the heart of humanity's most pressing challenges, including climate change, large-scale natural resource depletion, biodiversity loss, nuclear proliferation, antibiotic resistance due to overconsumption of antibiotics, and pollution. In this paper, we suggest an analytical framework that captures the theoretical understanding of preconditions for large-scale collective action. This analytical framework aims at supporting future empirical analyses of how to cope with and overcome larger-scale collective action problems. More specifically, we (i) define and describe the main characteristics of a large-scale collective action problem and (ii) explain why voluntary and, in particular, spontaneous large-scale collective action among individual actors becomes more improbable as the collective action problem becomes larger, thus demanding interventions by an external authority (a third party) for such action to be generated. Based on this, we (iii) outline an analytical framework that illustrates the connection between third-party interventions and large-scale collective action. We conclude by suggesting avenues for future research.

Статтю присвячено вивченню понять і взаємозв’язку концепцій «загальної спадщини людства» і «загального надбання» в науці міжнародного права. Актуальність теми обумовлена інтересом держав, що зростає, до можливості експлуатації територій і ресурсів, які підпадають під дію і охорону принципу загальної спадщини людства. Наразі можна визнати такими, що мають статус загальної спадщини людства тільки кілька просторів. Але останнім часом ми спостерігаємо сміливі спроби розширити їх список об’єктами, що не відповідають юридичному змісту принципу загальної спадщини людства. В цьому відношенні часто використовується концепція загального надбання.Принцип загальної спадщини людства розглядається як звичаєва норма міжнародного права, застосування якої, однак, є неоднозначним. Об’єктами, на які поширюється її дія, виступають простори та їхні ресурси, що знаходяться поза юрисдикцією держав. Джерела міжнародного права не містять ні вичерпного переліку таких просторів, ні їхніх ознак, які, як наслідок, виокремлено в науці міжнародного права. Однозначно визнаними об’єктами загальної спадщини людства є глибоководний район морського дна, космос, включаючи небесні тіла, а також Антарктика, хоча і з певними застереженнями. Є пропозиції віднести до них також відкрите море, кіберпростір і людський геном. Однак через різнорідність і невідповідність класичному розумінню принципу загальної спадщини ці об’єкти зараз складно однозначно визнати «загальною спадщиною людства».Додаткові труднощі у визначенні переліку таких об’єктів викликає також все більш частотне вживання в літературі і наукових дослідженнях терміна «загальне надбання». Він не визначений в нормативному масиві міжнародного права і є ще більш розмитим, адже до категорії загального надбання відносять як простори та їхні ресурси за межами національної юрисдикції, так і ресурси, щодо яких діє національна юрисдикція певних держав. У зв’язку з цим ототожнення об’єктів загального надбання та об’єктів загальної спадщини людства наразі зда, The article is dedicated to the notions and interrelation of the common heritage of humankind and global commons concepts in the science of international law. The topic is relevant due to a growing interest of states to the possibility of exploitation of areas and resources falling under the regulation and protection of the common heritage of humankind principle. There are only few spaces that can be exactly recognized as having the common heritage status. But recently we have seen bold attempts to broaden their list with objects that don’t correspondent to the legal notion of the common heritage of humankind principle. The global commons concept is often used in this regard., Статья посвящена изучению понятий и взаимосвязи концепций «общего наследия человечества» и «всеобщего достояния» в науке международного права. Актуальность темы обусловлена растущим интересом государств к возможности эксплуатации территорий и ресурсов, подпадающих под действие и охрану принципа общего наследия человечества. На данный момент можно признать имеющими статус общего наследия человечества только несколько пространств. Но в последнее время мы наблюдаем смелые попытки расширить их список объектами, не соответствующими юридическому содержанию принципа общего наследия человечества. В этом отношении часто используется концепция всеобщего достояния.Принцип общего наследия человечества рассматривается в качестве обычной нормы международного права, применение которой, однако, является неоднозначным. Объектом, на который распространяется ее действие, выступают пространства и их ресурсы, находящиеся вне юрисдикции государств. Источники международного права не содержат ни исчерпывающего перечня таких пространств, ни их признаков, которые, как следствие, выделяются в науке международного права. Однозначно признанными объектами общего наследия человечества являются глубоководный район морского дна, космос, включая небесные тела, а также Антарктика, хотя и с определенными оговорками. Есть предложения отнести к ним также открытое море, киберпространство и человеческий геном. Однако из-за разнородности и несоответствия классическому пониманию принципа общего наследия человечества данные объекты в настоящий момент сложно однозначно признать «общим наследием человечества».Дополнительные сложности в определении перечня таких объектов вызывает все более частотное употребление в литературе и научных исследованиях термина «всеобщее достояние». Он не определен в нормативном массиве международного права и является еще более размытым, т.к. к категории всеобщего достояния относят как пространства и их ресурсы за пределами национальной юрисдикции, так и ресурсы, в отношении которых

The phenomenon of collective action and the origin of collective action problems have been extensively and systematically studied in the social sciences. Yet, while we have substantial knowledge about the factors promoting collective action at the local level, we know far less about how these insights travel to large-scale collective action problems. Such problems, however, are at the heart of humanity’s most pressing challenges, including climate change, large-scale natural resource depletion, biodiversity loss, nuclear proliferation, antibiotic resistance due to overconsumption of antibiotics, and pollution. In this paper, we suggest an analytical framework that captures the theoretical understanding of preconditions for large-scale collective action. This analytical framework aims at supporting future empirical analyses of how to cope with and overcome larger-scale collective action problems. More specifically, we (i) define and describe the main characteristics of a large-scale collective action problem and (ii) explain why voluntary and, in particular, spontaneous large-scale collective action among individual actors becomes more improbable as the collective action problem becomes larger, thus demanding interventions by an external authority (a third party) for such action to be generated. Based on this, we (iii) outline an analytical framework that illustrates the connection between third-party interventions and large-scale collective action. We conclude by suggesting avenues for future research.

The phenomenon of collective action and the origin of collective action problems have been extensively and systematically studied in the social sciences. Yet, while we have substantial knowledge about the factors promoting collective action at the local level, we know far less about how these insights travel to large-scale collective action problems. Such problems, however, are at the heart of humanity's most pressing challenges, including climate change, large-scale natural resource depletion, biodiversity loss, nuclear proliferation, antibiotic resistance due to overconsumption of antibiotics, and pollution. In this paper, we suggest an analytical framework that captures the theoretical understanding of preconditions for large-scale collective action. This analytical framework aims at supporting future empirical analyses of how to cope with and overcome larger-scale collective action problems. More specifically, we (i) define and describe the main characteristics of a large-scale collective action problem and (ii) explain why voluntary and, in particular, spontaneous large-scale collective action among individual actors becomes more improbable as the collective action problem becomes larger, thus demanding interventions by an external authority (a third party) for such action to be generated. Based on this, we (iii) outline an analytical framework that illustrates the connection between third-party interventions and large-scale collective action. We conclude by suggesting avenues for future research.

The work proposes a theoretical systematization on the communicative competences of the tourist guides to interpret the heritage. In the field of tourism studies have been noted the existence of theoretical - methodological gaps that guide the practice of these professionals, in this specific case is the need for the study of communicative competence for the interpretation of heritage as a tool that will Allow guided tours, where professionals do not limit themselves to repeat scripts to all groups of visitors, without considering the characteristics of the same and contexts of origin, this problem is largely due to their lack of management the techniques of heritage interpretation and the failure to take into account the motivations and interests of each segment of the tourism market. The scope of this article is aimed at making a tour of the fundamentals of competencies, defining what is assumed by communicative competence for the interpretation of heritage, as well as the methodological underpinnings of research, for which qualitative and quantitative methods were used., El trabajo propone una sistematización teórica sobre las competencias comunicativas de los guías de turismo para interpretar el patrimonio. En el campo de los estudios turísticos se han constatado la existencia de vacíos teóricos – metodológicos que orienten la práctica de estos profesionales, en este caso específico se presenta la necesidad del estudio de competencia comunicativa para la interpretación de patrimonio como una herramienta que le va a permitir la realización de excursiones guiadas, donde los profesionales no se limiten a repetir guiones a todos los grupos de visitantes, sin considerar las características de los mismos y contextos de procedencia, dicha problemática se debe en gran medida a  que presentan carencias en el manejo de las técnicas de interpretación patrimonial y el no tomar en cuenta  las motivaciones e intereses de cada segmento de mercado turístico. Los alcances del presente artículo están dirigidos a realizar un recorrido por los fundamentos de las competencias, definir qué se asume por competencia comunicativa para la interpretación del patrimonio, así como los sustentos metodológicos de la investigación, para el cual se utilizaron métodos cualitativos y cuantitativos.

The participation of indigenous peoples in the multilateral negotiations that conform climate policies began with the Earth Summit (Rio de Janeiro, 1992). Globally, indigenous peoples participate in various national,regional and multilateral processes that shape the necessary public policies to administer “global commons”. Multilaterally, indigenous peoples have succeeded in pushing new political instruments and widening the recognition of their human and collective rights. Starting from a relevant milestone in this trajectory —the consensus behind the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (adopted by the UN GeneralAssembly in 2007)— collective rights have spread within environmental law. How do indigenous organizations work to achieve this? What is the impact oftheir actions? What conclusions can be drawn for contemporary politics? This documentis centered around the trajectory ofindigenous organizations that, with their work during the past 20 years, have achieved recognition as key actors in the reduction of deforestation and the generation of alternatives for a low-carbon development. The recognition of their ancestral knowledge is a fundamental piece in this effort. Ideas of development and the political procedures within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have not adjusted yettowhatthese organizations defend, but substantial changes can be observed.TheConference of the Parties (COP), given the recognition of the need to reinforce local communities’ and indigenous peoples’ knowledge,technologies, practices andefforts to face climate change, establishedtheLocalCommunities and Indigenous Peoples Platform, whose purpose is the exchange of experiences and best practices regarding mitigation and adaptation in a holistic and integrated manner., La participación de los pueblos indígenas en las negociaciones multilaterales que dan forma a las políticas climáticas empezó tan pronto como la Cumbre de la Tierra de Río de Janeiro en 1992. En efecto, los pueblos indígenas en el ámbito global participan en diversos procesos nacionales,regionales y multilaterales que conforman las políticas públicas necesarias para gestionarlos “bienes comunes globales”. En el espacio multilateral, los pueblos indígenas han logrado impulsar nuevos instrumentos políticos y ampliar elreconocimiento de sus derechos humanos y colectivos.Apartir del consenso de la Declaración de las Naciones Unidas sobre los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas (aprobada en la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas en 2007), se han ido difundiendo los derechos colectivos en el marco del derecho ambiental. ¿Cómo trabajan las organizaciones indígenas para lograrlo? ¿Cuál es el impacto de su acción? ¿Qué conclusiones pueden sacarse para la política contemporánea? Este documento se centra en la trayectoria de las organizaciones indígenas que, a lo largo de 20 años, han conseguido que se les reconozca como actores clave en la reducción de la deforestación y la generación de alternativas para un desarrollo bajo en carbono. Elreconocimiento de su sabiduría ancestral es una pieza fundamental en este esfuerzo. Las ideas de desarrollo y los procedimientos políticos en el proceso de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (CMNUCC) todavía no se ajustan a lo que defienden sus organizaciones, pero se pueden observar cambios sustanciales.

The work proposes a theoretical systematization on the communicative competences of the tourist guides to interpret the heritage. In the field of tourism studies have been noted the existence of theoretical - methodological gaps that guide the practice of these professionals, in this specific case is the need for the study of communicative competence for the interpretation of heritage as a tool that will Allow guided tours, where professionals do not limit themselves to repeat scripts to all groups of visitors, without considering the characteristics of the same and contexts of origin, this problem is largely due to their lack of management the techniques of heritage interpretation and the failure to take into account the motivations and interests of each segment of the tourism market. The scope of this article is aimed at making a tour of the fundamentals of competencies, defining what is assumed by communicative competence for the interpretation of heritage, as well as the methodological underpinnings of research, for which qualitative and quantitative methods were used., El trabajo propone una sistematización teórica sobre las competencias comunicativas de los guías de turismo para interpretar el patrimonio. En el campo de los estudios turísticos se han constatado la existencia de vacíos teóricos – metodológicos que orienten la práctica de estos profesionales, en este caso específico se presenta la necesidad del estudio de competencia comunicativa para la interpretación de patrimonio como una herramienta que le va a permitir la realización de excursiones guiadas, donde los profesionales no se limiten a repetir guiones a todos los grupos de visitantes, sin considerar las características de los mismos y contextos de procedencia, dicha problemática se debe en gran medida a  que presentan carencias en el manejo de las técnicas de interpretación patrimonial y el no tomar en cuenta  las motivaciones e intereses de cada segmento de mercado turístico. Los alcances del presente artículo están dirigidos a realizar un recorrido por los fundamentos de las competencias, definir qué se asume por competencia comunicativa para la interpretación del patrimonio, así como los sustentos metodológicos de la investigación, para el cual se utilizaron métodos cualitativos y cuantitativos.

The work proposes a theoretical systematization on the communicative competences of the tourist guides to interpret the heritage. In the field of tourism studies have been noted the existence of theoretical - methodological gaps that guide the practice of these professionals, in this specific case is the need for the study of communicative competence for the interpretation of heritage as a tool that will Allow guided tours, where professionals do not limit themselves to repeat scripts to all groups of visitors, without considering the characteristics of the same and contexts of origin, this problem is largely due to their lack of management the techniques of heritage interpretation and the failure to take into account the motivations and interests of each segment of the tourism market. The scope of this article is aimed at making a tour of the fundamentals of competencies, defining what is assumed by communicative competence for the interpretation of heritage, as well as the methodological underpinnings of research, for which qualitative and quantitative methods were used., El trabajo propone una sistematización teórica sobre las competencias comunicativas de los guías de turismo para interpretar el patrimonio. En el campo de los estudios turísticos se han constatado la existencia de vacíos teóricos – metodológicos que orienten la práctica de estos profesionales, en este caso específico se presenta la necesidad del estudio de competencia comunicativa para la interpretación de patrimonio como una herramienta que le va a permitir la realización de excursiones guiadas, donde los profesionales no se limiten a repetir guiones a todos los grupos de visitantes, sin considerar las características de los mismos y contextos de procedencia, dicha problemática se debe en gran medida a  que presentan carencias en el manejo de las técnicas de interpretación patrimonial y el no tomar en cuenta  las motivaciones e intereses de cada segmento de mercado turístico. Los alcances del presente artículo están dirigidos a realizar un recorrido por los fundamentos de las competencias, definir qué se asume por competencia comunicativa para la interpretación del patrimonio, así como los sustentos metodológicos de la investigación, para el cual se utilizaron métodos cualitativos y cuantitativos.

The four ‘Global Commons’ – the Atmosphere, Antarctica, the High Seas (Oceans) and Outer Space – are in international law identified and recognised as falling outside the jurisdiction of any state. Whilst crucial to mankind and the global ecosystem as a whole, the commons are severely impacted by the current anthropogenic climate change. This thesis argues that the global commons have a weak legal protection today. Given the significance of the global commons for the achievement of sustainable development, exploring possibilities to strengthen such protection through international law is crucial to secure the future of our world. The purpose of this thesis is to highlight the issues relating to the current legal protection of the global commons and to address them in the perspective of international law and sustainable development as intersecting conceptual and theoretical frameworks. By applying and analysing the acknowledged New Delhi Declaration of Principles of International Law Relating to Sustainable Development, this thesis will aim to provide insights, and maybe even a fresh point of view, as to how legal instruments could be structured and implemented in the strive for more effective and sustainable protection of the global commons.

The four ‘Global Commons’ – the Atmosphere, Antarctica, the High Seas (Oceans) and Outer Space – are in international law identified and recognised as falling outside the jurisdiction of any state. Whilst crucial to mankind and the global ecosystem as a whole, the commons are severely impacted by the current anthropogenic climate change. This thesis argues that the global commons have a weak legal protection today. Given the significance of the global commons for the achievement of sustainable development, exploring possibilities to strengthen such protection through international law is crucial to secure the future of our world. The purpose of this thesis is to highlight the issues relating to the current legal protection of the global commons and to address them in the perspective of international law and sustainable development as intersecting conceptual and theoretical frameworks. By applying and analysing the acknowledged New Delhi Declaration of Principles of International Law Relating to Sustainable Development, this thesis will aim to provide insights, and maybe even a fresh point of view, as to how legal instruments could be structured and implemented in the strive for more effective and sustainable protection of the global commons.

From the point of view of the international law, global commons or the common spaces are those spaces which are not part of any particular State, and therefore, no State may exercise sovereign rights. Despite the characteristics shared by the different spaces, there are today no uniform rules governing access to and use of the same. American hegemony materializes after the cold war in its military power, which would reach its peak with the Bush Presidency. But this hegemony would be equally in common areas, such as the sea, air, outer space and cyberspace is on the Global Commons. The rise of the so-called BRICS foreshadows a future in which new powers can get to challenge the economic and military hegemony that is boasting the United States, since the end of the cold war but it seems more likely that this confrontation take a more veiled form, so that the aspirants to hegemony can erode American power through challenge this control over the common spaces foundation of American supremacy. This struggle for mastery of the global commons seems to have begun already in the realm of cyberspace., Desde el punto de vista del Derecho Internacional, los espacios comunes o global commons son aquellos espacios que no forman parte de ningún Estado concreto y sobre los que, por tanto, ningún Estado puede ejercer derechos soberanos. A pesar de las características compartidas por los diferentes espacios comunes, no existe a día de hoy ninguna normativa uniforme que regule el acceso y uso de los mismos. La hegemonía Estadounidense se materializaría tras la guerra fría en su poder militar, que llegaría a su punto álgido con la presidencia de Bush. Pero esta hegemonía se mostraría igualmente en los espacios comunes, tales como el mar, el aire, el espacio exterior y el ciberespacio es decir en los Global Commons. El auge de los denominados BRICS1 presagia un futuro, en el cual las nuevas potencias puedan llegar a desafiar la hegemonía económica y militar que desde el final de la Guerra Fría viene ostentando los Estados Unidos, pero parece más probable que este enfrentamiento adopte una forma mucho más velada, de manera que los países aspirantes a la hegemonía puedan erosionar el poder estadounidense a través de disputarle a éste el control sobre los espacios comunes, fundamento último de la supremacía americana. Esta lucha por el dominio de los global commons parece haberse iniciado ya en el ámbito del ciberespacio.

What will be the form and function of the armored force in 2030? The purpose of this thesis was to assess the possible roles and changes to the organization of the United States main battle tank and its supporting organizations. The question was examined first within the context of the United States national strategy. Potential competitors of the United States are utilizing weapon systems that deny U.S. Armed Forces access to competitor territory and to the global commons, therefore the research delved into the current Anti-Access and Area Denial weapon platforms and strategies that the United States could face in a conflict. The history of the tank was examined to provide historical context to proposed recommendations. The research used a qualitative method that incorporated grounded theory for analysis as well as case study methodology in data collection. The current joint capabilities integration and development systems manual (2012) helped identify the categories to show potential gaps in each category. The categories used were doctrine, organization, training, materiel, leadership, personnel and facilities (DOTMLPF). The end results were general recommendations for changes to the United States main battle tank as well as recommendations within each of the DOTMLPF categories.

This document presents a generic methodology designed to support decision makers in enhancing resilience through a better understanding of how their nation or organization is dependent on the cyber domain, and how they can be better prepared to maintain essential capabilities and services in the event of cyber attacks on their critical assets. The main body of the concept is a step-by-step guide to the practical application of the methodology. It takes a working group through the identification of an organization's critical assets, analysis of its dependencies on cyber space and any associated vulnerabilities, and the need to maintain a current threat picture. Finally it introduces mitigating measures that will help make a system more resilient. As this methodology is designed to be generic, some parts of it will be more relevant than others for your organization and your specific level within that organization. While the methodology is presented as a whole, parts of it can also be standalone or used as separate methods as appropriate. For those interested in understanding the conceptual basis upon which the methodology rests, Annex A explains the theoretical principles and key definitions. Annex B contains Ten Commandments of Resilience an aide memoire for achieving resilience, while Annex C contains a Methodology Crosswalk a handy two-page form which will aid you in finding the right section in the methodology for the particular task with which you are dealing, as well as identifying potential outputs for each step., The original document contains color images.

Despite increasing interest in transnational fields, transnational commons have received little attention. In contrast to economic models of commons, which argue that commons occur naturally and are prone to collective inaction and tragedy, we introduce a social constructionist account of commons. Specifically, we show that actor-level frame changes can eventually lead to the emergence of an overarching, hybrid "commons logic" at the field level. These frame shifts enable actors with different logics to reach a working consensus and avoid "tragedies of the commons." Using a longitudinal analysis of key actors' logics and frames, we tracked the evolution of the global climate change field over 40 years. We bracketed time periods demarcated by key field-configuring events, documented the different frame shifts in each time period, and identified five mechanisms (collective theorizing, issue linkage, active learning, legitimacy seeking, and catalytic amplification) that underpin how and why actors changed their frames at various points in time-enabling them to move toward greater consensus around a transnational commons logic. In conclusion, the emergence of a commons logic in a transnational field is a nonlinear process and involves satisfying three conditions: (1) key actors view their fates as being interconnected with respect to a problem issue, (2) these actors perceive their own behavior as contributing to the problem, and (3) they take collective action to address the problem. Our findings provide insights for multinational companies, nation-states, nongovernmental organizations, and other stakeholders in both conventional and unconventional commons.

Diagrams of Deterrence Concept, The original document contains color images.

This document presents a generic methodology designed to support decision makers in enhancing resilience through a better understanding of how their nation or organization is dependent on the cyber domain, and how they can be better prepared to maintain essential capabilities and services in the event of cyber attacks on their critical assets. The main body of the concept is a step-by-step guide to the practical application of the methodology. It takes a working group through the identification of an organization's critical assets, analysis of its dependencies on cyber space and any associated vulnerabilities, and the need to maintain a current threat picture. Finally it introduces mitigating measures that will help make a system more resilient. As this methodology is designed to be generic, some parts of it will be more relevant than others for your organization and your specific level within that organization. While the methodology is presented as a whole, parts of it can also be standalone or used as separate methods as appropriate. For those interested in understanding the conceptual basis upon which the methodology rests, Annex A explains the theoretical principles and key definitions. Annex B contains Ten Commandments of Resilience an aide memoire for achieving resilience, while Annex C contains a Methodology Crosswalk a handy two-page form which will aid you in finding the right section in the methodology for the particular task with which you are dealing, as well as identifying potential outputs for each step., Multinational Experiment 7. Outcome 3 - Cyber Domain Objective 3.1: Threats and Vulnerability Methodology Version 1.0. The original document contains color images.

Over arching brief to Senior Leadership describing issues with Access to Space., Multinational Experiment 7: Outcome 3: Space Access Briefing. The original document contains color images.

Space provides critical and unique capabilities that increase the effectiveness of terrestrial warfighters, via accurate timing and navigational data, command and control capabilities, imagery and weather information. Our dependency on Space makes this domain an attractive target to our adversaries to negate our supremacy in other domains, and since Space is not owned by anyone it can be exploited by everyone. Furthermore, the capability to enter space or to restrict or deny access to it is no longer limited to global powers. Multinational Experiment 7 Outcome 2 is segmented into three Objectives. The second Objective identifies mechanisms to influence actors who may threaten our access or use of space. This document identifies how to manage the behaviour of actors who threaten access or use of space. The document outlines the basic concepts and terms in use (Section 3), the assumptions and scope of this document (Section 4) and provides a simple process for deterring and influencing in space (Part I)., The original document contains color images.

The Mediterranean region, inclusive of its western and eastern approaches, ideally represents a summary of what are the threats (among all terrorism, pollution, smuggling, illegal immigration, national crisis, etc.) and the challenges (complex environment where different religions, cultures, economies and societies live together) in creating a Maritime Security Regime (MSR). Moreover, as a crucial crossroads for the maritime trade and the global economic flows, the Mediterranean Sea is something like a lab where maritime security initiatives could be assessed and fruitfully enhanced., Multinational Experiment 7: Outcome 1: Maritime Security Region: Regional Analysis - Wider Mediterranean. The original document contains color images.

Nations and organisations require concepts and capabilities for anticipating, deterring, preventing, protecting against and responding to a disruption or a denial of access to the global commons domains (air, maritime, space and cyber) and for ensuring freedom of action within them, while taking into account their interrelationships. There is currently a gap in our ability to generate sufficient collaborative national and international situational awareness across the cyber domain. This generates a requirement for a generic and comprehensive framework that details the processes for generating sufficient collaborative national and international cyber situational awareness. Cyber situational awareness is required across the public and private sectors, and at a national and international level, if we are to truly provide a comprehensive and integrated response to sophisticated threats that can operate below the detection thresholds of many existing processes and systems. The aim of this paper is to describe the concept of employment for a cyber situational awareness capability that will support international and national access to and freedom of action within the global commons., Multinational Experiment 7. Outcome 3 - Cyber Domain, Objective 3.5: Cyber Situational Awareness. This document was developed and written by the contributing nations and organizations of the Multinational Experiment (MNE) 7. It does not necessarily reflect the views or opinions of any single nation or organization, but is intended as a guide. The original document contains color images.

This report discusses the need and potential for the establishment of a maritime security regime (MSR) in the Western Indian Ocean. Such an MSR should be tasked with in the region. For the last several years the threat to maritime security and freedom of navigation has first and foremost been piracy originating from Somali territory but active in large parts of the Western Indian Ocean. However, a decade ago the threat came from militant Islamic terrorist groups, as it materialised in the attack on a French tanker in October 2002. Nearly three decades ago threats in the region consisted of attacks on shipping in the Persian Gulf carried out by the parties in the Iran-Iraq war and allegedly Libyan mining of the Red Sea. At the time of writing, in 2012, tensions between the West and Iran has resulted in Iranian threats to block the Strait of Hormuz by military means., Multinational Experiment 7: Outcome 1: Maritime Security Region: Regional Analysis, Western Indian Ocean HOA-GOA The original document contains color images.

This document aims to capture some of the conceptual and pre-doctrinal considerations developed in the context of MNE 7 Outcome 4 related to Inter-Domain Understanding. Although the focus of MNE 7 Outcome 4 was on the development of a methodology to identify inter-domain dependencies and related vulnerabilities, a number of broader considerations emerged in support of this methodology. They are encapsulated here. This document begins by addressing the military problem related to inter-domain understanding. It then focuses on ways of building inter-domain understanding, through a conceptual framework and models as well as a related methodology. It also addresses some potential implications related to developing this inter-domain understanding. Finally, it provides illustrative examples to bring to light some inter-domain aspects of two fictional operations. It is important to note that unless specified, the considerations described in this paper have not been subject to experimentation during MNE 7. Readers interested in this topic should also examine the Methodology to Understand Inter-Domain Dependencies and Vulnerabilities, Guide version 1.0, 31 January 2013., Prepared in coollaboration with Fondation pour la recherche strategique, France. The original document contains color images.

Nations and organisations require concepts and capabilities for anticipating, deterring, preventing, protecting against and responding to a disruption or a denial of access to the global commons domains (air, maritime, space and cyber) and for ensuring freedom of action within them, while taking into account their interrelationships. There is currently a gap in our ability to generate sufficient collaborative national and international situational awareness across the cyber domain. This generates a requirement for a generic and comprehensive framework that details the processes for generating sufficient collaborative national and international cyber situational awareness. Cyber situational awareness is required across the public and private sectors, and at a national and international level, if we are to truly provide a comprehensive and integrated response to sophisticated threats that can operate below the detection thresholds of many existing processes and systems. The aim of this paper is to provide a common framework of processes based on the Outcome 3 work that supports the generation of cyber situational awareness that will enhance the ability of decision makers to take those decisions to maintain the operation/capability/service for which they are responsible, in good time., Multinational Experiment 7. Outcome 3 - Cyber Domain, Objective 3.5: Cyber Situational Awareness. This document was developed and written by the contributing nations and organizations of the Multinational Experiment (MNE) 7. It does not necessarily reflect the views or opinions of any single nation or organization, but is intended as a guide. The original document contains color images.

This Information Sharing Framework (ISF) provides the guidance to establish the capability to increase an organisation's cyber Situational Awareness (SA) enabled by sharing information across a trusted community of interest. It describes the context and the business case for participation, and includes the collaborative governance, federated access control and management of information quality. The ISF gives strategic guidance on the policies, procedures and mechanisms that any trusted partner will require in order to collaborate. It is a blueprint for collaborative policy development across communities of nations, and military and industry organisations. The ISF is ultimately for decision makers, particularly in cyber, politics, military, government, industry and academia. It should guide political and legal advisers, policy makers, risk managers, cyber defence organisations, service providers and others., This document was developed and written by the contributing nations and organizations of the Multinational Experiment (MNE) 7. It does not necessarily reflect the views or opinions of any single nation or organization, but is intended as a guide.

The Multinational Experiment (MNE) series was initiated by United States Joint Forces Command (USJFCOM) in 2001 and is now led by Joint and Coalition Warfighting, Joint Development, United States Joint Staff J7. It is designed to develop and validate concepts and capabilities that can be used to address the challenges associated with conducting coalition operations. The products outlined in this catalog represent the final outcomes generated during this seventh MNE campaign, Access to the Global Commons. MNE 7 was a complex, two-year, multinational and inter-agency effort designed to improve coalition capabilities relative to ensuring access to the global commons. MNE 7 had 18 participating nations and organizations and proved to be the most ambitious campaign to date., The original document contains color images.

This document aims to capture some of the conceptual and pre-doctrinal considerations developed in the context of MNE 7 Outcome 4 related to Inter-Domain Understanding. Although the focus of MNE 7 Outcome 4 was on the development of a methodology to identify inter-domain dependencies and related vulnerabilities, a number of broader considerations emerged in support of this methodology. They are encapsulated here. It is important to note that unless specified, the considerations described in this paper have not been subject to experimentation during MNE 7. This guide is primarily intended for operational-level commanders and their staffs in order to improve their understanding of inter-domain issues. It contains a methodology to analyze inter-domain relationships, dependencies and vulnerabilities, which is intended to enable a better integration of space and cyber operational issues in support of mission analysis and course of action development within the operational planning process. The methodology may be implemented during standing strategic awareness, but is primarily designed to support contingency planning and crisis response planning within existing knowledge development (KD)/intelligence and planning processes., Prepared in coollaboration with Fondation pour la recherche strategique, France. The original document contains color images.

Multinational Experiment (MNE) 7, Access to the Global Commons, was a complex, two-year, multinational and inter-agency effort designed to improve coalition capabilities relative to ensuring access to the global commons. We depend on space to enhance and enable a broad range of military, governmental, and commercial capabilities. However, our access to space is vulnerable to hazards and threats. So, we must adopt new strategies to assure necessary space capabilities. These strategies must be proactive, and develop the means to influence, deter, defend and mitigate the consequences of harmful actions in space. These issues are compounded by the fact that the capacity of space is finite. There is limited availability of useful orbits and consequently, they are congested. Furthermore, our reliance on space makes it a tempting target for potential actors, who may wish to negate economic or security advantages in other domains by disrupting space-enabled capabilities. A range of options exists to disrupt or deny the space, ground, and communication segments of space systems, thereby degrading space capabilities. We aim to provide a useful guide for senior leaders and managers, both civilian and military, in government and commercial organisations. This guide summarises the main outputs of the campaign. Chapter 1 provides the foundation while in Chapter 2 we propose a framework for protecting access to space, describing the potential consequences of disruption or denial of space capabilities and how to mitigate their loss. Annex A provides a summary of all the products. This guide should be read in conjunction our earlier publication, Space: Dependencies, Vulnerabilities and Threats., The original document contains color images.

Objective 3.3 lexicon and abbreviations provides compilation of the existing definitions and terms from the various areas, legal terms and definitions associated to the cyber issues and relate strictly to the specific legal instrument, and custom made definitions or descriptions which are developed solely to the MNE 7 CD&E campaign. Lexicon goal is to offer most suitable definitions or descriptions for the terms used, and create common understanding among participants as they consider the MNE 7 problem statement and baseline assessments, and engage in MNE 7 campaign activities and supporting endeavors. Lexicon will be a living document for the duration of the MNE 7 campaign.

Space provides critical and unique capabilities that increase the effectiveness of terrestrial warfighters, via accurate timing and navigational data, command and control capabilities, imagery and weather information. Our dependency on Space makes this domain an attractive target to our adversaries to negate our supremacy in other domains, and since Space is not owned by anyone it can be exploited by everyone. Furthermore, the capability to enter space or to restrict or deny access to it is no longer limited to global powers. Multinational Experiment 7 Outcome 2 is segmented into three Objectives. The first Objective determines key dependencies on space and space-enabled capabilities and identifies threats and vulnerabilities to these dependencies. The second Objective identifies mechanisms to influence actors who may threaten our access or use of space. The third Objective develops proposals for mitigation of effects of the denial or disruption of the space domain in the event that influencing actors fails. The aims and scope of the Multinational Experiment 7 Outcome 2 were informed by the Multinational Experiment 7 Space Domain Baseline Assessment Report and the Objective Development Conference. This document provides foundational knowledge and a point of reference on ideas and concepts related to deterrence, although by strict definition the document will cover coercion, which is both deterrence and compellence. The document will be essential reading for those who wish to understand the context in which Outcome 2 outputs and recommendations are made. This knowledge is an interpretation that satisfies the specific needs and limited scope of Multinational Experiment 7 and consequently it should not be considered to be an authoritative work., Multinational Experiment 7: Outcome 2: Space-Deterrence Primer V 1.0. The original document contains color images.

The Cyber Situational Awareness Standard Operating Procedure (Cyber SA SOP) provides structures, roles, processes and tool requirements for gaining and maintaining effective SA. The Cyber SA SOP supports decision makers in gaining an understanding of activities in cyberspace. The Cyber SA SOP is supported by utilizing technologies that enable collection, analysis, presentation, and sharing of information related to cyberspace. A balance of automated processes along with human decision making is enabled by fusing and analyzing recognized data patterns, along with collaborative functions to share this information., The original document contains color images.

Unhindered ability to utilize the Maritime Domain is essential to a healthy global economy and is vital to the strategic security interests of all nations. Loss of access to this significant global supply chain that connects nations, people, markets and manufacturers around the world quickly expands to impact all nations. Direct threats to ensured maritime access include disruption of commerce, interference with the lawful use of the Maritime Domain, and transnational crimes such as piracy and terrorism. Natural phenomena such as severe weather, ice or geological disasters may limit access. Since these threats and events can be expected to continue it would be prudent to prepare for a future where the impact of a variety of access challenges could be prevented, mitigated or resolved. No single nation can ensure access for the global community. The complexity and uncertainty facing the nations of each unique maritime region are compounded by the problems and opportunities of cyber, air, and space domain interdependencies and regional relationships. The interdependence with other domains is evident in that the physical flow in the Maritime Domain is coupled with the information flow in cyberspace, a physical connection to the air domain, and the reliance on space assets for navigation and communication. Maritime Security Regime (MSR) is the term used to describe a group of states and/or organizations acting together, with an agreed upon framework of rules and procedures, to ensure security within the maritime environment. This Concept was developed under the Multinational Experiment 7 (MNE 7). An underlying insight of the Concept is that the global linking of MSRs to other regions and other domains can enhance the ability of the MSR to mitigate their own regional access challenges. It is clear that the nature of maritime access challenges is potentially global in scope and impact. This calls for a global and agile framework designed to support regional challenges., Multinational Experiment 7: Outcome 1: Maritime Security Regime Concept. This document was developed and written by the contributing nations and organizations of the Multinational Experiment (MNE) 7. This manual does not necessarily reflect the views or opinions of any single nation or organization, but is intended as a guide to help support regional maritime security initiatives. The original document contains color images.

Multinational Experiment (MNE) 7, Access to the Global Commons, was a complex, two-year, multinational and inter-agency effort designed to improve coalition capabilities relative to ensuring access to the global commons. We depend on space to enhance and enable a broad range of military, governmental, and commercial capabilities. However, our access to space is vulnerable to hazards and threats. So, we must adopt new strategies to assure necessary space capabilities. These strategies must be proactive, and develop the means to influence, deter, defend and mitigate the consequences of harmful actions in space. These issues are compounded by the fact that the capacity of space is finite. There is limited availability of useful orbits and consequently, they are congested. Furthermore, our reliance on space makes it a tempting target for potential actors, who may wish to negate economic or security advantages in other domains by disrupting space-enabled capabilities. A range of options exists to disrupt or deny the space, ground, and communication segments of space systems, thereby degrading space capabilities. This handbook is aimed at audiences working in a disparate range of military and civilian, specialist and generalist areas, including policy makers. Some will have considerable experience of space related issues, while others have none, so a main body of text has been created to act as a basic primer. This enables users to develop a basic, but sufficient, understanding of the key capabilities that space systems can provide, while also describing mitigation methods and the potential impacts of loss of space services., The original document contains color images.

The global commons have routinely been considered as physical spaces that are not under direct nation-state control common grassland that all must share, for example. They demand responsible management so as not to exhaust their supply (fisheries) or do irreparable harm to the world s ecosystem (species extinction, pollution of the atmosphere, contamination of potable water supplies). These spaces may also be vital to states and other global actors as they provide access and connectivity to the rest of the world (sea lines of communication). The global commons in the 21st century lexicon of security has expanded even further to consist of outer space, international waters and airspace, and cyberspace. Together the aforementioned constructs constitutes the fabric or connective tissue of the international system, as Flournoy and Brimley noted in 2009. Strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in describing the world s oceans as a great highway a wide common in his 1890 volume, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History. Mahan s viewpoints influenced security policies and military capabilities for decades. Today, as we push the envelope even further regarding our understanding and importance of the global commons, some suggest that the human species itself constitutes an essential element of the global commons and that human rights, equitable development, ethnic cleansing, and civil wars are legitimate parts of the expanding definition of the global commons. Regardless, the global commons is an important part of regional and global security and offers challenges and opportunities for cooperation as we share this planet.

U.S. National Security Strategy identifies the Global Commons as shared sea, air, and space domains which exist outside of exclusive national jurisdiction. Cyberspace, as yet a nascent domain, may be evolving into a new Global Commons as it acquires the five distinguishing characteristics such domains share. The international regimes created by treaties are voluntary affairs and states accept their constraints primarily to preserve their future interests when they lack the capability to exert control or enforce a sovereignty claim. However claims to the global commons and their governing regimes are not immutable. On the contrary, technological progress, resource scarcity and most recently, climate change, are making global commons more accessible and more desirable. The result is inexorable pressure for states to expand their sovereignty. To do so, states must be able to demonstrate sustained presence and possess the capability to act within the domain. As there exists no formal process to transition international regimes to recognized sovereignty claims, states must undertake the essential activity of engagement in order to preserve their interests among the regime stakeholders and be properly positioned to affect an expansion of national sovereignty into a global commons. This paper advocates a holistic approach, advancing a campaign plan for the global commons., Advanced Joint Professional Military Education, Class # 11-08.

The emergence of China and India as regional and international powers has implications for the relevancy of extant collective security mechanisms in Southeast Asia. Their growth will continue to contribute significantly to the dynamism of the region and has the potential to both define new points of potential conflict and influence how regional and international disputes are resolved. The growing importance of the global commons to trade in the area is one of many potential points of friction that will need to be dealt with under any new security agreements. The methods used to create enduring collective security mechanisms has significance beyond Southeast Asia and may have validity for other regions on the globe., Strategy Research Project.