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Viruses are abundant, ubiquitous members of soil communities that kill microbial cells, but how they respond to perturbation of soil ecosystems is essentially unknown. Here, we investigate lineage-specific virus-host dynamics in grassland soil following wet-up, when resident microbes are both resuscitated and lysed after a prolonged dry period. Quantitative isotope tracing, time-resolved metagenomics and viromic analyses indicate that dry soil holds a diverse but low biomass reservoir of virions, of which only a subset thrives following wet-up. Viral richness decreases by 50% within 24 h post wet-up, while viral biomass increases four-fold within one week. Though recent hypotheses suggest lysogeny predominates in soil, our evidence indicates that viruses in lytic cycles dominate the response to wet-up. We estimate that viruses drive a measurable and continuous rate of cell lysis, with up to 46% of microbial death driven by viral lysis one week following wet-up. Thus, viruses contribute to turnover of soil microbial biomass and the widely reported CO2 efflux following wet-up of seasonally dry soils.

In Field Guide to a Hybrid Landscape Dana Fritz traces the evolution of the Bessey Ranger District and Nursery of the Nebraska National Forest and Grasslands. Fritz’s contemporary photographs of this unique ecosystem, with provocative environmental essays, maps, and historical photographs from the U.S. Forest Service archives, illuminate the complex environmental and natural history of the site, especially as it relates to built environments, land use, and climate change. The Nebraska National Forest at Halsey, as it is known colloquially, is the largest hand-planted forest in the Western Hemisphere, and formerly in the world. This hybrid landscape of a conifer forest overlaid onto a semiarid grassland just west of the one-hundredth meridian was an ambitious late nineteenth-century idea to create a timber industry, to reclaim a landscape considered disordered and unproductive, and to change the local climate in northcentral Nebraska. While the planners seemed not to appreciate the native grasslands that form the ecosystem of the Nebraska Sandhills, they did recognize the reliable water from the Dismal and Middle Loup Rivers that border the site. In 1902 the first federal nursery was established as part of the Dismal River Forest Reserve to produce seedlings for plains homesteads and the adjacent treeless tract of land. At that time tree planting was not used for carbon sequestration but to mitigate the wind and evaporation of moisture. The Bessey Nursery now produces replacement seedlings for burned and beetle-damaged forests in the Rocky Mountains and for the Nebraska Conservation Trees Program. This constructed landscape of row-crop trees that were protected from fire for decades, yet never commercially harvested for timber, provides a rich metaphor for current environmental predicaments. The late nineteenth-century effort to reclaim with trees what was called the Great American Desert has evolved to a focus on twenty-first-century conservation, grassland restorat

The properties of grazed grassland soils are frequently degraded in tropical zones. This work aimed to review the literature on the theory and results of sampling and analysis of the spatial variability of pasture soil properties in the world and Ecuador. The methodology, results, and discussion of 15 articles on the subject, available in the following databases: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet, and SpringerLink; and the respective theory of 5 books were reviewed. It was found that worldwide there are soil sampling works that evaluate the spatial variability of soil properties; at the national level, sampling does not consider this variability. It is essential to conduct research in Ecuador on the spatial variability of the properties of pasture soils, which will allow reliable decisions to be made for their management and conservation., Las propiedades de los suelos con pastizales de pastoreo frecuentemente se degradan en las zonas tropicales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar la literatura de la teoría y resultados del muestreo y análisis de la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades del suelo de pastizales a nivel mundial y en Ecuador. Se revisó la metodología, resultados y discusión de 15 artículos del tema, disponibles en las bases de datos: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet y SpringerLink; y la teoría respectiva de 5 libros. Se encontró que a nivel mundial existen trabajos de muestreo de suelos que evalúan la variabilidad espacial de sus propiedades; mientras que a nivel nacional los muestreos no consideran dicha variabilidad. Es importante llevar a cabo en Ecuador investigaciones de la variabilidad espacial de propiedades del suelo de pastizales, que permitan tomar decisiones fiables para su manejo y conservación.

Human activities are altering ecological communities around the globe. Understanding the implications of these changes requires that we consider the composition of those communities. However, composition can be summarized by many metrics which in turn are influenced by different ecological processes. For example, incidence-based metrics strongly reflect species gains or losses, while abundance-based metrics are minimally affected by changes in the abundance of small or uncommon species. Furthermore, metrics might be correlated with different predictors. We used a globally distributed experiment to examine variation in species composition within 60 grasslands on six continents. Each site had an identical experimental and sampling design: 24 plots × 4 years. We expressed compositional variation within each site—not across sites—using abundance- and incidence-based metrics of the magnitude of dissimilarity (Bray–Curtis and Sorensen, respectively), abundance- and incidence-based measures of the relative importance of replacement (balanced variation and species turnover, respectively), and species richness at two scales (per plot-year [alpha] and per site [gamma]). Average compositional variation among all plot-years at a site was high and similar to spatial variation among plots in the pretreatment year, but lower among years in untreated plots. For both types of metrics, most variation was due to replacement rather than nestedness. Differences among sites in overall within-site compositional variation were related to several predictors. Environmental heterogeneity (expressed as the CV of total aboveground plant biomass in unfertilized plots of the site) was an important predictor for most metrics. Biomass production was a predictor of species turnover and of alpha diversity but not of other metrics. Continentality (measured as annual temperature range) was a strong predictor of Sorensen dissimilarity. Metrics of compositional variation are moderately correlated: knowin

Many butterfly populations respond negatively to land-use intensification in human-dominated landscapes. Networks of protected sites have been established with the aim to halt species loss. We undertook annual surveys of all occurrence sites of 22 uncommon butterfly species in eastern Denmark during the period 2014–2019 and compared to a systematic atlas survey done 1989–1993, in order to assess trends in regional occupancy of species. Three out of 22 species went regionally extinct between 1993 and 2015. One species sustained a single population through the study period. Logistic regression for the remaining 18 species showed 10 to be in strong decline from 1993 to 2015, two showed a declining trend and six had stable trends. For all species except one, the declining trend continued 2015–2019. For five species, a sustained strong decline was evident. In 1993, the total count of occurrence sites for all 22 butterfly species was 565, which by 2019 had declined to 158 sites (a 72 % loss over 26 years). From 2015 to 2019 alone, the total count of occurrence sites shrank from 200 to 158 (a 21 % decline over just four years). Legal protection of areas (Natura 2000 and Danish Nature Protection Act §3) was, unexpectedly, not associated with lower probability of local extinction for butterfly population. The observed sustained decline across species suggests an overall low efficiency of the network of protected sites, probably due to a combination of misguided management regimes and payment of extinction debts from the past.

Fairy circles (FCs) are regular vegetation patterns found in drylands of Namibia and Western Australia. It is virtually unknown whether they are also present in other regions of the world and which environmental factors determine their distribution. We conducted a global systematic survey and found FC-like vegetation patterns in 263 sites from 15 countries and three continents, including the Sahel, Madagascar, and Middle-West Asia. FC-like vegetation patterns are found in environments characterized by a unique combination of soil (including low nutrient levels and high sand content) and climatic (arid regions with high temperatures and high precipitation seasonality) conditions. In addition to these factors, the presence of specific biological elements (termite nests) in certain regions also plays a role in the presence of these patterns. Furthermore, areas with FC-like vegetation patterns also showed more stable temporal productivity patterns than those of surrounding areas. Our study presents a global atlas of FCs and provides unique insights into the ecology and biogeography of these fascinating vegetation patterns.

Grasslands host a significant share of Europe's species diversity but are among the most threatened vegetation types of the continent. Resurvey studies can help to understand patterns and drivers of changes in grassland diversity and species composition. However, most resurveys are based on local or regional data, and hardly reach back more than eight decades. Here, we publish and describe the Historic Square Foot Dataset, comprising 580 0.09-m2 and 43 1-m2 vegetation plots carefully sampled between 1884 and 1931, covering a wide range of grassland types across Switzerland. We provide the plots as an open-access data set with coordinates, relocation accuracy and fractional aboveground biomass per vascular plant species. We assigned EUNIS habitat types to most plots. Mean vascular plant species richness in 0.09 m2 was 19.7, with a maximum of 47. This is considerably more than the present-day world record of 43 species for this plot size. Historically, species richness did not vary with elevation, differing from the unimodal relationship found today. The data set provides unique insight into how grasslands in Central Europe looked more than 100 years ago, thus offering manifold options for studies on the development of grassland biodiversity and productivity.

Previous scenarios of plant migration corridors between the two main rainforests of the Neotropics, the Amazon and Atlantic forests, are not satisfactory as they do not account for the modern distribution or the phylogeography of the taxa. Here, we enlarge the spatio-temporal scale of the different scenarios to better understand past connections between the Brazilian biomes. We used comprehensive published literature in phylogeography, ecology, paleoecology, paleoclimatology, paleoceanography, geomorphology in a multidisciplinary approach to reconstruct the migration of the plant taxa Podocarpus, Ilex, Hedyosmum, Myrsine. Two routes for cool taxa functioned during glacial periods, one ancient route that linked the Andes to the lowlands through the Cerrado and, another that used the coastal Restinga during the low sea level stands of the glacials. Marine pollen records provide evidence for the glacial expansion of a coastal vegetation, the Restinga, which included taxa of a cold type of grassland that today is sheltered at high elevations. The Cerrado is at the node of the migration of the taxa between the Amazon and Atlantic rainforests, from the Andes to the coast. The Brazilian mountain ranges are refugia of ancient taxa that colonized the continent up to the Andes and modified the floristic assemblages of the two rainforests during glacial periods. Today they need to be recognized and better protected.

The properties of grazed grassland soils are frequently degraded in tropical zones. This work aimed to review the literature on the theory and results of sampling and analysis of the spatial variability of pasture soil properties in the world and Ecuador. The methodology, results, and discussion of 15 articles on the subject, available in the following databases: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet, and SpringerLink; and the respective theory of 5 books were reviewed. It was found that worldwide there are soil sampling works that evaluate the spatial variability of soil properties; at the national level, sampling does not consider this variability. It is essential to conduct research in Ecuador on the spatial variability of the properties of pasture soils, which will allow reliable decisions to be made for their management and conservation., Las propiedades de los suelos con pastizales de pastoreo frecuentemente se degradan en las zonas tropicales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar la literatura de la teoría y resultados del muestreo y análisis de la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades del suelo de pastizales a nivel mundial y en Ecuador. Se revisó la metodología, resultados y discusión de 15 artículos del tema, disponibles en las bases de datos: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet y SpringerLink; y la teoría respectiva de 5 libros. Se encontró que a nivel mundial existen trabajos de muestreo de suelos que evalúan la variabilidad espacial de sus propiedades; mientras que a nivel nacional los muestreos no consideran dicha variabilidad. Es importante llevar a cabo en Ecuador investigaciones de la variabilidad espacial de propiedades del suelo de pastizales, que permitan tomar decisiones fiables para su manejo y conservación.

The properties of grazed grassland soils are frequently degraded in tropical zones. This work aimed to review the literature on the theory and results of sampling and analysis of the spatial variability of pasture soil properties in the world and Ecuador. The methodology, results, and discussion of 15 articles on the subject, available in the following databases: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet, and SpringerLink; and the respective theory of 5 books were reviewed. It was found that worldwide there are soil sampling works that evaluate the spatial variability of soil properties; at the national level, sampling does not consider this variability. It is essential to conduct research in Ecuador on the spatial variability of the properties of pasture soils, which will allow reliable decisions to be made for their management and conservation., Las propiedades de los suelos con pastizales de pastoreo frecuentemente se degradan en las zonas tropicales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar la literatura de la teoría y resultados del muestreo y análisis de la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades del suelo de pastizales a nivel mundial y en Ecuador. Se revisó la metodología, resultados y discusión de 15 artículos del tema, disponibles en las bases de datos: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet y SpringerLink; y la teoría respectiva de 5 libros. Se encontró que a nivel mundial existen trabajos de muestreo de suelos que evalúan la variabilidad espacial de sus propiedades; mientras que a nivel nacional los muestreos no consideran dicha variabilidad. Es importante llevar a cabo en Ecuador investigaciones de la variabilidad espacial de propiedades del suelo de pastizales, que permitan tomar decisiones fiables para su manejo y conservación.

Native grasslands are a forage resource available to small-scale dairy production system (SSDS), whose cost is relatively low. The objective of this study was to determine the nutritive value through well as biomass of a native pasture during the rainy season in the central highlands of Mexico. The work was carried out during the months of June to October in small-scale milk production systems on 9.02 ha. The non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney test was applied to forage mass results (five periods). A split-plot design was developed to evaluate the variables of in vitro gas production, in vitro digestibility and metabolisable energy. The results obtained show that mean biomass production values of 976.16 kg DM ha-1, crude protein contents between 64 and 131 g kg-1 DM; NDF 599 and 698 g kg-1 DM; FDA between 282 and 336 g kg-1 DM were obtained. Potential gas production (B) did not show significant differences between zones (p>0.05), but between periods (p<0.05) with up to 5.8% higher potential production in the three intermediate periods. Incubation delay time, fermentation rate and in vitro digestibility of neutral detergent fibre (IVDFDN) were affected by their zone×period interactions (p<0.05). In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMS) and estimated metabolisable energy (eME) of pastures were higher in the first four periods, decreasing in the last period (p<0.05). Native pastures are of medium quality and as they do not require any management, they are an inexpensive option for feeding cows in small-scale dairy systems in the rainy season., Los pastizales nativos son un recurso forrajero que disponen las unidades de sistemas de producción de leche en pequeña escala (SPLPE), cuyo costo es relativamente bajo. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue determinar el valor nutritivo así como de biomasa de un pastizal nativo durante la época de lluvias en el altiplano central de México. El trabajo se llevó a cabo durante los meses de junio a octubre en sistemas de producción de leche en pequeña escala, en 9.02 ha. Se aplicó la prueba no paramétrica de Kruskal-Wallis y Mann-Whitney a los resultados de la masa de forraje (cinco periodos). Se elaboró un diseño de parcelas divididas para evaluar las variables de producción de gas in vitro, digestibilidad in vitro y energía metabolizable. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que se obtuvieron valores medios de producción de biomasa de 976.16 kg MS ha-1, contenidos de proteína cruda entre 64 y 131 g kg-1 MS; FDN 599 y 698 g kg-1 MS; FDA entre 282 y 336 g kg-1 MS. La producción potencial de gas (B) no mostró diferencias significativas con respecto a las zonas (p>0.05), pero si entre los periodos (p<0.05) con hasta un 5,8% más de producción potencial en los tres periodos intermedios. El tiempo de retardo de incubación, la tasa de fermentación y la digestibilidad “in vitro” de la fibra neutro detergente (DIVFDN) fueron afectados por sus interacciones zona×periodo (p<0,05). En la digestibilidad “in vitro” de la materia seca (DIVMS) y energía metabolizable estimada (eEM) de los pastizales fueron mayores en los primeros cuatro periodos, disminuyendo en el último (p<0,05). Los pastizales nativos presentan calidad media y al no requerir ningún manejo, son una opción barata para la alimentación de vacas en sistemas de producción de leche en pequeña escala en la época de lluvias.

The properties of grazed grassland soils are frequently degraded in tropical zones. This work aimed to review the literature on the theory and results of sampling and analysis of the spatial variability of pasture soil properties in the world and Ecuador. The methodology, results, and discussion of 15 articles on the subject, available in the following databases: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet, and SpringerLink; and the respective theory of 5 books were reviewed. It was found that worldwide there are soil sampling works that evaluate the spatial variability of soil properties; at the national level, sampling does not consider this variability. It is essential to conduct research in Ecuador on the spatial variability of the properties of pasture soils, which will allow reliable decisions to be made for their management and conservation., Las propiedades de los suelos con pastizales de pastoreo frecuentemente se degradan en las zonas tropicales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar la literatura de la teoría y resultados del muestreo y análisis de la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades del suelo de pastizales a nivel mundial y en Ecuador. Se revisó la metodología, resultados y discusión de 15 artículos del tema, disponibles en las bases de datos: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet y SpringerLink; y la teoría respectiva de 5 libros. Se encontró que a nivel mundial existen trabajos de muestreo de suelos que evalúan la variabilidad espacial de sus propiedades; mientras que a nivel nacional los muestreos no consideran dicha variabilidad. Es importante llevar a cabo en Ecuador investigaciones de la variabilidad espacial de propiedades del suelo de pastizales, que permitan tomar decisiones fiables para su manejo y conservación.

Biodiversity loss and its effects on humanity is of major global concern. While a growing body of literature confirms positive relationships between biodiversity and multiple ecological functions, the links between biodiversity, ecological functions and multiple ecosystem services is yet unclear. Studies of biodiversity-functionality relationships are mainly based on computer simulations or controlled field experiments using only few species. Here, we use a trait-based approach to integrate plant functions into an ecosystem service assessment to address impacts of restoration on species-rich grasslands over time. We found trade-offs among functions and services when analysing contributions from individual species. At the community level, these trade-offs disappeared for almost all services with time since restoration as an effect of increased species diversity and more evenly distributed species. Restoration to enhance biodiversity also in species-rich communities is therefore essential to secure higher functional redundancy towards disturbances and sustainable provision of multiple ecosystem services over time.

Global vegetation regimes vary in belowground carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics. However, disentangling large-scale climatic controls from the effects of intrinsic plant–soil–microbial feedbacks on belowground processes is challenging. In local gradients with similar pedo-climatic conditions, effects of plant–microbial feedbacks may be isolated from large-scale drivers. Across a subarctic–alpine mosaic of historic grazing fields and surrounding heath and birch forest, we evaluated whether vegetation-specific plant–microbial feedbacks involved contrasting N cycling characteristics and C and N stocks in the organic topsoil. We sequenced soil fungi, quantified functional genes within the inorganic N cycle, and measured 15N natural abundance. In grassland soils, large N stocks and low C : N ratios associated with fungal saprotrophs, archaeal ammonia oxidizers, and bacteria capable of respiratory ammonification, indicating maintained inorganic N cycling a century after abandoned reindeer grazing. Toward forest and heath, increasing abundance of mycorrhizal fungi co-occurred with transition to organic N cycling. However, ectomycorrhizal fungal decomposers correlated with small soil N and C stocks in forest, while root-associated ascomycetes associated with small N but large C stocks in heath, uncoupling C and N storage across vegetation types. We propose that contrasting, positive plant–microbial feedbacks stabilize vegetation trajectories, resulting in diverging soil C : N ratios at the landscape scale.

Livestock systems in the Colombian Caribbean present soil degradation problems, which decreases productivity and quality of grasses. Silvopastoral systems are alternatives for sustainable soil management, since they contribute to nutrient cycling through litter of plant species that comprise them. Objective. To quantify the potential return of nutrients through leaf litter of plant species, in three thirteen-year silvopastoral systems and in a grass-only pasture, under dry forest conditions in Northern Colombia. Materials and methods. Annual amount of nutrients in foliar litter of different plant species was estimated in three silvopastoral systems and in a grass-only pasture, by the use of litter traps installed in the area of influence of each plant species. Results. Tree species in the silvopastoral systems generated a greater amount of foliar litter and nutrients than the grass-only pasture. Albizia saman presented the highest values of foliar litter production and nitrogen and phosphorus return within the silvopastoral systems, with respect to the other species. Conclusion. Litter production of the different species was independent of the silvopastoral system in which they were found, and the potential return of nutrients through foliar litter of tree species in silvopastoral systems was higher than that recorded in the grass-only pasture, Los sistemas ganaderos del Caribe Colombiano presentan problemas de degradación de suelo, lo que afecta la productividad y calidad de las gramíneas. Los sistemas silvopastoriles son alternativas para el manejo sostenible del suelo, ya que contribuyen con el ciclaje de nutrientes através de la hojarasca de las especies vegetales que los conforman. Objetivo. Cuantificar el retorno potencial de nutrientes através de la hojarasca foliar de especies vegetales, en 3 sistemas silvopastoriles de 13 años y en una pradera de solo gramíneas, bajo condiciones de bosque seco en el norte de Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Se estimó la cantidad anual de nutrientes en la hojarasca foliar de diferentes especies vegetales en sistemas silvopastoriles y en una pastura de solo gramíneas, con trampas de hojarasca instaladas en el área de influencia de cada especie vegetal. Resultados. Las especies arbóreas en los sistemas silvopastoriles generaron mayor cantidad de hojarasca foliar y nutrientes que la pastura de solo gramíneas. Albizia saman presentó los mayores valores de producción de hojarasca foliar y retorno de nitrógeno y fósforo dentro de los sistemas silvopastoriles, con respecto a las otras especies. Conclusión. La producción de hojarasca de las diferentes especies fue independiente del sistema silvopastoril en el cual se encontraban, y el retorno potencial de nutrientes vía hojarasca foliar de las especies arbóreas en los sistemas silvopastoriles fue superior a la registrada en la gramínea de la pradera sin árboles

In Field Guide to a Hybrid Landscape Dana Fritz traces the evolution of the Bessey Ranger District and Nursery of the Nebraska National Forest and Grasslands. Fritz’s contemporary photographs of this unique ecosystem, with provocative environmental essays, maps, and historical photographs from the U.S. Forest Service archives, illuminate the complex environmental and natural history of the site, especially as it relates to built environments, land use, and climate change. The Nebraska National Forest at Halsey, as it is known colloquially, is the largest hand-planted forest in the Western Hemisphere, and formerly in the world. This hybrid landscape of a conifer forest overlaid onto a semiarid grassland just west of the one-hundredth meridian was an ambitious late nineteenth-century idea to create a timber industry, to reclaim a landscape considered disordered and unproductive, and to change the local climate in northcentral Nebraska. While the planners seemed not to appreciate the native grasslands that form the ecosystem of the Nebraska Sandhills, they did recognize the reliable water from the Dismal and Middle Loup Rivers that border the site. In 1902 the first federal nursery was established as part of the Dismal River Forest Reserve to produce seedlings for plains homesteads and the adjacent treeless tract of land. At that time tree planting was not used for carbon sequestration but to mitigate the wind and evaporation of moisture. The Bessey Nursery now produces replacement seedlings for burned and beetle-damaged forests in the Rocky Mountains and for the Nebraska Conservation Trees Program. This constructed landscape of row-crop trees that were protected from fire for decades, yet never commercially harvested for timber, provides a rich metaphor for current environmental predicaments. The late nineteenth-century effort to reclaim with trees what was called the Great American Desert has evolved to a focus on twenty-first-century conservation, grassland restorat

Species abundance distributions (SADs) link species richness with species abundances and are an important tool in the quantitative analysis of ecological communities. Niche-based and sample-based SAD models predict different spatial scaling properties of SAD parameters. However, empirical research on SAD scaling properties is largely missing. Here we extracted percentage cover values of all occurring vascular plants as proxies of their abundance in 1725 10-m2 plots from the GrassPlot database, covering 47 regional data sets of 19 different grasslands and other open vegetation types of the Palaearctic biogeographic realm. For each plot, we fitted the Weibull distribution, a model that is able to effectively mimic other distributions like the log-series and lognormal, to the species-log abundance rank order distribution. We calculated the skewness and kurtosis of the empirical distributions and linked these moments, along with the shape and scale parameters of the Weibull distribution, to plot climatic and soil characteristics. The Weibull distribution provided excellent fits to grassland plant communities and identified four basic types of communities characterized by different degrees of dominance. Shape and scale parameter values of local communities on poorer soils were largely in accordance with log-series distributions. Proportions of subdominant species tended to be lower than predicted by the standard lognormal SAD. Successive accumulation of plots of the same vegetation type yielded nonlinear spatial scaling of SAD moments and Weibull parameters. This scaling was largely independent of environmental correlates and geographic plot position. Our findings caution against simple generalizations about the mechanisms that generate SADs. We argue that in grasslands, lognormal-type SADs tend to prevail within a wider range of environmental conditions, including more extreme habitats such as arid environments. In contrast, log-series distributions are mainly restricte

Global vegetation regimes vary in belowground carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics. However, disentangling large-scale climatic controls from the effects of intrinsic plant–soil–microbial feedbacks on belowground processes is challenging. In local gradients with similar pedo-climatic conditions, effects of plant–microbial feedbacks may be isolated from large-scale drivers. Across a subarctic–alpine mosaic of historic grazing fields and surrounding heath and birch forest, we evaluated whether vegetation-specific plant–microbial feedbacks involved contrasting N cycling characteristics and C and N stocks in the organic topsoil. We sequenced soil fungi, quantified functional genes within the inorganic N cycle, and measured 15N natural abundance. In grassland soils, large N stocks and low C : N ratios associated with fungal saprotrophs, archaeal ammonia oxidizers, and bacteria capable of respiratory ammonification, indicating maintained inorganic N cycling a century after abandoned reindeer grazing. Toward forest and heath, increasing abundance of mycorrhizal fungi co-occurred with transition to organic N cycling. However, ectomycorrhizal fungal decomposers correlated with small soil N and C stocks in forest, while root-associated ascomycetes associated with small N but large C stocks in heath, uncoupling C and N storage across vegetation types. We propose that contrasting, positive plant–microbial feedbacks stabilize vegetation trajectories, resulting in diverging soil C : N ratios at the landscape scale.

Global vegetation regimes vary in belowground carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics. However, disentangling large-scale climatic controls from the effects of intrinsic plant–soil–microbial feedbacks on belowground processes is challenging. In local gradients with similar pedo-climatic conditions, effects of plant–microbial feedbacks may be isolated from large-scale drivers. Across a subarctic–alpine mosaic of historic grazing fields and surrounding heath and birch forest, we evaluated whether vegetation-specific plant–microbial feedbacks involved contrasting N cycling characteristics and C and N stocks in the organic topsoil. We sequenced soil fungi, quantified functional genes within the inorganic N cycle, and measured 15N natural abundance. In grassland soils, large N stocks and low C : N ratios associated with fungal saprotrophs, archaeal ammonia oxidizers, and bacteria capable of respiratory ammonification, indicating maintained inorganic N cycling a century after abandoned reindeer grazing. Toward forest and heath, increasing abundance of mycorrhizal fungi co-occurred with transition to organic N cycling. However, ectomycorrhizal fungal decomposers correlated with small soil N and C stocks in forest, while root-associated ascomycetes associated with small N but large C stocks in heath, uncoupling C and N storage across vegetation types. We propose that contrasting, positive plant–microbial feedbacks stabilize vegetation trajectories, resulting in diverging soil C : N ratios at the landscape scale.

Global vegetation regimes vary in belowground carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics. However, disentangling large-scale climatic controls from the effects of intrinsic plant–soil–microbial feedbacks on belowground processes is challenging. In local gradients with similar pedo-climatic conditions, effects of plant–microbial feedbacks may be isolated from large-scale drivers. Across a subarctic–alpine mosaic of historic grazing fields and surrounding heath and birch forest, we evaluated whether vegetation-specific plant–microbial feedbacks involved contrasting N cycling characteristics and C and N stocks in the organic topsoil. We sequenced soil fungi, quantified functional genes within the inorganic N cycle, and measured 15N natural abundance. In grassland soils, large N stocks and low C : N ratios associated with fungal saprotrophs, archaeal ammonia oxidizers, and bacteria capable of respiratory ammonification, indicating maintained inorganic N cycling a century after abandoned reindeer grazing. Toward forest and heath, increasing abundance of mycorrhizal fungi co-occurred with transition to organic N cycling. However, ectomycorrhizal fungal decomposers correlated with small soil N and C stocks in forest, while root-associated ascomycetes associated with small N but large C stocks in heath, uncoupling C and N storage across vegetation types. We propose that contrasting, positive plant–microbial feedbacks stabilize vegetation trajectories, resulting in diverging soil C : N ratios at the landscape scale.

Knowledge on biodiversity is fundamental for conservation strategies. The Brazilian Pampa region, located in subtropical southern Brazil, is neglected in terms of conservation, and knowledge of its biodiversity is fragmented. We aim to answer the question: how many, and which, species occur in the Brazilian Pampa? In a collaborative effort, we built species lists for plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi that occur in the Brazilian Pampa. We included information on distribution patterns, main habitat types, and conservation status. Our study resulted in referenced lists totaling 12,503 species (12,854 taxa, when considering infraspecific taxonomic categories [or units]). Vascular plants amount to 3,642 species (including 165 Pteridophytes), while algae have 2,046 species (2,378 taxa) and bryophytes 316 species (318 taxa). Fungi (incl. lichenized fungi) contains 1,141 species (1,144 taxa). Animals total 5,358 species (5,372 taxa). Among the latter, vertebrates comprise 1,136 species, while invertebrates are represented by 4,222 species. Our data indicate that, according to current knowledge, the Pampa holds approximately 9% of the Brazilian biodiversity in an area of little more than 2% of Brazil’s total land. The proportion of species restricted to the Brazilian Pampa is low (with few groups as exceptions), as it is part of a larger grassland ecoregion and in a transitional climatic setting. Our study yielded considerably higher species numbers than previously known for many species groups; for some, it provides the first published compilation. Further efforts are needed to increase knowledge in the Pampa and other regions of Brazil. Considering the strategic importance of biodiversity and its conservation, appropriate government policies are needed to fund studies on biodiversity, create accessible and constantly updated biodiversity databases, and consider biodiversity in school curricula and other outreach activities.

Global vegetation regimes vary in belowground carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics. However, disentangling large-scale climatic controls from the effects of intrinsic plant–soil–microbial feedbacks on belowground processes is challenging. In local gradients with similar pedo-climatic conditions, effects of plant–microbial feedbacks may be isolated from large-scale drivers. Across a subarctic–alpine mosaic of historic grazing fields and surrounding heath and birch forest, we evaluated whether vegetation-specific plant–microbial feedbacks involved contrasting N cycling characteristics and C and N stocks in the organic topsoil. We sequenced soil fungi, quantified functional genes within the inorganic N cycle, and measured 15N natural abundance. In grassland soils, large N stocks and low C : N ratios associated with fungal saprotrophs, archaeal ammonia oxidizers, and bacteria capable of respiratory ammonification, indicating maintained inorganic N cycling a century after abandoned reindeer grazing. Toward forest and heath, increasing abundance of mycorrhizal fungi co-occurred with transition to organic N cycling. However, ectomycorrhizal fungal decomposers correlated with small soil N and C stocks in forest, while root-associated ascomycetes associated with small N but large C stocks in heath, uncoupling C and N storage across vegetation types. We propose that contrasting, positive plant–microbial feedbacks stabilize vegetation trajectories, resulting in diverging soil C : N ratios at the landscape scale.

In three dairy grasslands on peat, minerals were added to manipulate the soil Ca:Mg ratio with or without effect on pH. The responses of soil properties and grass N yield were measured. CaCO3 application led to higher soil Ca:Mg ratio and pHKCl compared to the untreated control, decreased Ntotal and Ctotal, and increased P availability. Grass N yield increased in the first year by only 6% of the reduction in soil Ntotal, but not in the second year. A higher pH increased SOM decomposition, especially in soils with high P availability. MgCO3 reduced the Ca:Mg ratio, had little influence on soil parameters and no effect on grass N yield. In contrast, CaSO4 and MgSO4 did not influence pHKCl but reduced grass N yield in most cases. Results suggest stabilisation of organic matter by Ca binding in treatments with added Ca. We conclude that grass N yield was not linked with changes in Ca:Mg ratio but with soil pH. The pH effects on SOM decomposition depended on P availability and Ca binding. Hence, to avoid potentially large soil losses of C and N, the current agricultural advice on pH management in peat grasslands should be better adapted to local edaphic characteristics.

Increasing air temperatures and decreasing rainfall can alter Mediterranean ecosystems, where summer heat and drought already limit plant regeneration. Manipulative field studies can help to understand and anticipate community responses to climate changes. In a Mediterranean oak wooded pasture, we have investigated the effects of warming (W, via open-top chambers increasing 1.4 °C mean air temperature), reduced rainfall (D, via gutters removing 33% of rainfall) and the combination of both factors (WD) on the winter-annual Geranium dissectum L. We measured reproductive phenology and output, leaf physiology during the reproductive phase, and plant relative abundance. Warming had a positive effect on plant height and little effects on leaf physiology. Rainfall reduction enhanced leaf water use efficiency. However, the most noticeable effects occurred in WD plants, which exhibited lower leaf predawn water potential and earlier flowering phenology in the first year of treatment, and a higher ratio of leaf dark respiration (R) to net CO2 assimilation (Pn) at comparable temperatures in the third year, compared to control plants. Leaf R at ambient temperature was similar across climatic treatments. The relative abundance of G. dissectum decreased by 23% over three years, but similarly across treatments. A short life cycle helps G. dissectum to escape severe late-spring heat and drought stress. Moreover, stomata closure and thermal acclimation of R can attenuate plant stress impact on reproduction. Adaptability of the short-lived annual G. dissectum could mitigate climate change impact on community composition over short periods (e.g. three years); however, a reduction in net carbon gain could eventually affect its reproductive success and persistence in the community.

Interspecific associations may limit the dispersal of individual species, but may also facilitate it when entire co-evolved systems expand their geographic ranges. We tested the recent proposal that episodic land bridges linked Africa and Madagascar at three stages during the Cenozoic by comparing divergence estimates of Madagascar’s angiosperm taxa with their dispersal mechanisms. Plants that rely on gravity for seed dispersal indicate at least two episodes of land connection between Africa and Madagascar, in the Early Palaeocene and Early Oligocene. Seed dispersal by strepsirrhine primates possibly evolved in the Palaeocene, with the divergence of at least one endemic Malagasy angiosperm genus, Burasaia (Menispermaceae). This genus may have facilitated the lemur colonization of Madagascar. Frugivory, nectarivory and gummivory probably generalized in the Oligocene, with the co-evolution of modern lemurs and at least 10 new Malagasy angiosperm families. In the Late Miocene, more angiosperms were probably brought from Africa by birds via a discontinuous land connection, and radiated on Madagascar in diffuse association with birds (asities) and dwarf nocturnal lemurs (cheirogaleids). During the same connective episode, Madagascar was probably colonized by hippopotamuses, which both followed and re-seeded a variety of plants, forming the grassy Uapaca ‘tapia’ forest and ericoid ‘savoka’ thicket.

Outside controlled experimental plots, the impact of community attributes on primary productivity has rarely been compared to that of individual species. Here, we identified plant species of high importance for productivity (key species) in >29,000 diverse grassland communities in the European Alps, and compared their effects with those of community-level measures of functional composition (weighted means, variances, skewness and kurtosis). After accounting for the environment, the five most important key species jointly explained more deviance of productivity than any measure of functional composition alone. Key species were generally tall with high specific leaf areas. By dividing the observations according to distinct habitats, the explanatory power of key species and functional composition increased and key-species plant types and functional composition-productivity relationships varied systematically, presumably because of changing interactions and trade-offs between traits. Our results advocate for a careful consideration of species’ individual effects on ecosystem functioning in complement to community-level measures.

Understanding how fine-scale changes in soil characteristics and plant community composition affect ecosystem functioning is key to predicting how biome shifts will affect regional and global carbon cycling. This is crucial in the dryland biomes of the US Southwest, projected to be one of the regions most affected by climate change. We examined fine-scale drivers of ecosystem function within two biomes – a Chihuahuan Desert grassland and Plains/Chihuahuan Desert ecotone – via long-term vegetation data, micrometeorological data, eddy covariance carbon flux measurements, and soil water and texture, finding that the ecotone site had over 30% higher soil water content, over 20% greater plant biomass, and sequestered 1.3 times more carbon than the desert grassland. We attribute this difference to the ecotone having over 70% greater soil clay content than the desert grassland. Our analyses suggest that site-specific differences in soil texture greatly impact plant community structure, soil water content, and carbon sequestration.

The properties of grazed grassland soils are frequently degraded in tropical areas. The objective of this work was to review the literature on the theory and results of sampling and analysis of the spatial variability of grassland soil properties worldwide and in Ecuador. The methodology, results, and discussion of 15 articles were reviewed, available in the databases: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet, and SpringerLink, and the respective theory of 5 books. It was found that worldwide there are soil sampling works that evaluate the spatial variability of their properties, while at the national level, the samples do not consider such variability. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct research in Ecuador on the spatial variability of soil properties with grasslands, allowing reliable decisions to be made for their management and conservation., Las propiedades de los suelos con pastizales de pastoreo frecuentemente se degradan en las zonas tropicales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar la literatura de la teoría y resultados del muestreo y análisis de la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades del suelo de pastizales a nivel mundial y en Ecuador. Se revisó la metodología, resultados y discusión de 15 artículos del tema, disponibles en las bases de datos: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet y SpingerLink; y la teoría respectiva de 5 libros. Se encontró que a nivel mundial existen trabajos de muestreo de suelos que evalúan la variabilidad espacial de sus propiedades; mientras que a nivel nacional los muestreos no consideran dicha variabilidad. Es importante llevar a cabo en Ecuador investigaciones de la variabilidad espacial de propiedades del suelo de pastizales, que permitan tomar decisiones fiables para su manejo y conservación.

Anthropogenic nitrogen (N) input is known to alter the soil microbiome, but how N enrichment influences the abundance, alpha-diversity and community structure of N-cycling functional microbial communities in grasslands remains poorly understood. Here, we collected soils from plant communities subjected to up to 9 years of annual N-addition (10 g N m−2 per year using urea as a N-source) and from unfertilized plots (control) in 30 grasslands worldwide spanning a large range of climatic and soil conditions. We focused on three key microbial groups responsible for two essential processes of the global N cycle: N2 fixation (soil diazotrophs) and nitrification (AOA: ammonia-oxidizing archaea and AOB: ammonia-oxidizing bacteria). We targeted soil diazotrophs, AOA and AOB using Illumina MiSeq sequencing and measured the abundance (gene copy numbers) using quantitative PCR. N-addition shifted the structure of the diazotrophic communities, although their alpha-diversity and abundance were not affected. AOA and AOB responded differently to N-addition. The abundance and alpha-diversity of AOB increased, and their community structure shifted with N-addition. In contrast, AOA were not affected by N-addition. AOA abundance outnumbered AOB in control plots under conditions of low N availability, whereas N-addition favoured copiotrophic AOB. Overall, N-addition showed a low impact on soil diazotrophs and AOA while effects for AOB communities were considerable. These results reveal that long-term N-addition has important ecological implications for key microbial groups involved in two critical soil N-cycling processes. Increased AOB abundance and community shifts following N-addition may change soil N-cycling, as larger population sizes may promote higher rates of ammonia oxidation and subsequently increase N loss via gaseous and soil N-leaching. These findings bring us a step closer to predicting the responses and feedbacks of microbial-mediated N-cycling processes

Canopies shape net precipitation patterns, which are spatially heterogeneous and control soil moisture response to rainfall. The vast majority of studies on canopy water fluxes were conducted in forests. In contrast, grassland canopies are often assumed to be spatially homogeneous, therefore likely not inducing patches of heterogeneity at and below the soil surface. However, some studies on short-structured vegetation, such as grasslands, proposed the importance of canopy-induced heterogeneity for net precipitation. Still, systematic investigations on the effects on soil wetting patterns are missing. Therefore, in this study, we investigated soil moisture response to rainfall in a managed temperate grassland by exploring the individual impacts of spatially varying throughfall, vegetation height, and antecedent soil moisture status on the soil wetting patterns. We applied linear mixed effects models to disentangle the role of grassland canopy versus abiotic drivers. The spatial average soil water response showed diminishing water amounts stored in the upper parts of the soil as the growing season progressed and the soils dried, indicating bypass flow. Spatial variation of grass height was a significant driver of soil wetting patterns along with precipitation and antecedent soil moisture status. Soil wetting was suppressed in locations with tall canopies, although surprisingly, this was not directly related to throughfall patterns. Instead, our results suggest that seasonally drier conditions and the spatial difference in grass development amplify fast flow processes. Ultimately, our results confirm that spatial variation of the canopy affects soil moisture wetting patterns not only in forests but indicate a strong influence of preferential flow on soil water patterns in managed grassland as well.

Vegetation optical depth (VOD), as a microwave-based estimate of vegetation water and biomass content, is increasingly used to study the impact of global climate and environmental changes on vegetation. However, current global operational VOD products have a coarse spatial resolution (~25 km), which limits their use for agriculture management and vegetation dynamics monitoring at regional scales (1–5 km). This study aims to retrieve high-resolution VOD from the C-band Sentinel-1 backscatter data over a grassland of the Heihe River Basin in northwestern China. The proposed approach used an analytical solution of a simplified Water Cloud Model (WCM), constrained by given soil moisture estimates, to invert VOD over grassland with 1 km spatial resolution during the 2018–2020 period. Our results showed that the VOD estimates exhibited large spatial variability and strong seasonal variations. Furthermore, the dynamics of VOD estimates agreed well with optical vegetation indices, i.e., the mean temporal correlations with normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), enhanced vegetation index (EVI), and leaf area index (LAI) were 0.76, 0.75, and 0.75, respectively, suggesting that the VOD retrievals could precisely capture the dynamics of grassland.

Butterfly monitoring enjoys a growing popularity in Europe, mainly supported by Butterfly Conservation Europe (BCE) and its partners. While Butterfly Monitoring Schemes are present in a growing number of countries and new ones are being initiated in many places, long time-series are currently only available for a limited number of countries. For the indicators in this report, we used data from 22 countries (Figure 1): Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Jersey, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom.The indicators use field data up to and including the 2020 field season. The method for calculating indicators has been greatly improved and enhanced. During 2020, more than 2,500 standardised butterfly transects distributed across 22 monitoring schemes were used to inform the EU27 Grassland Butterfly Indicator and almost 5,000 from 25 schemes for the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Figure 2). Since 1990 over 6,350 and 11,500 separate transects have contributed to the EU27 and Europe indicators, respectively.

Grasslands represent an important ecosystem type as they provide numerous ecosystem services. Field studies have shown that temperate grasslands with high diversity can be highly productive. Management and changing environmental conditions can impact the diversity–production relationship. However, the specific mechanisms and role of biodiversity, environmental factors or anthropogenic interventions that lead to changes in production are not well understood. Here, we used the individual-based grassland model GRASSMIND parameterized for a field biodiversity experiment to analyze changes in the diversity–production relationship when varying the mowing frequency and increasing air temperature. Our results revealed that the positive diversity–production relationship persists with varied mowing frequency and temperature increase, with an increased proportion of herbs in more frequently mown grasslands (from 78% to 85%). Using the model, we further investigated quantitatively how different processes (e.g. plant shading) affect grassland dynamics and production under varied mowing frequencies and air temperature. Although aboveground net primary production (ANPP) decreased in more frequently mown grasslands (20% less ANPP), biomass yields increased due to an even stronger decrease in space-dependent plant mortality (30% less crowding). Plant mortality (intrinsic and by crowding) caused more biomass losses than caused by shading between plants or by a reduced production due to temperature increase. This study revealed how models, complementary to field experiments, can be used to analyze and quantify the importance of mechanisms and the role of environmental factors in grassland dynamics.

Purpose Soil diaspore banks of bryophytes are poorly known in tundra grasslands, yet can be important for the maintenance of local bryophyte assemblages. We examined the effects of fertilization and grazing exclusion on above-ground bryophyte assemblages and soil diaspore banks in a tundra grassland. Methods We collected soil diaspore samples and recorded the cover of above-ground bryophytes from a full-factorial experiment with NPK fertilization and grazing exclusion treatments (a Nutrient Network site in NW Finland). Soil diaspore samples were germinated on trays in a greenhouse. We analyzed the compositions of diaspore bank assemblages and of above-ground assemblages and assessed their responses to the experimental treatments. Results The diaspore bank contained c. 50% of taxa found in above-ground assemblages; 26 bryophyte taxa germinated from the diaspore bank, while 40 taxa were found in the above-ground assemblages. These communities had distinct species compositions: the diaspore bank was dominated by Pohlia nutans, while above-ground assemblages were dominated by several species. NPK fertilization and grazing exclusion had negative effects on bryophyte richness and cover in above-ground assemblages, and weaker effects on these responses in the diaspore bank. Conclusion Soil diaspore banks comprise about half of the bryophyte taxa encountered in above-ground assemblages. Bryophyte diaspore banks are more buffered against nutrient enrichment and grazing exclusion than above-ground assemblages, suggesting that diaspore banks may enhance persistence and recovery of local bryophyte assemblages from environmental changes.

In pair bonding animals, coordinated behavior between partners is required for the pair to accomplish shared goals such as raising young. Despite this, experimental designs rarely assess the behavior of both partners within a bonded pair. Thus, we lack an understanding of the interdependent behavioral dynamics between partners that likely facilitate relationship success. To identify intra-pair behavioral correlates of pair bonding, we used socially monogamous prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) and tested both partners using social choice and non-choice tests at short- and long-term pairing timepoints. Females developed a preference for their partner more rapidly than males, with preference driven by different behaviors in each sex. Further, as bonds matured, intra-pair behavioral sex differences and organized behavior emerged-females consistently huddled more with their partner than males did regardless of overall intra-pair affiliation levels. When animals were allowed to freely interact with a partner or a novel vole in sequential free interaction tests, pairs spent more time interacting together than either animal did with a novel vole, consistent with partner preference in the more commonly employed choice test. Total pair interaction in freely moving voles was correlated with female, but not male, behavior. Via a social operant paradigm, we found that pair-bonded females, but not males, are more motivated to access and huddle with their partner than a novel vole. Together, our data indicate that as pair bonds mature, sex differences and organized behavior emerge within pairs, and that these intra-pair behavioral changes are likely organized and driven by the female animal.

The rewarding properties of social interactions facilitate relationship formation and maintenance. Prairie voles are one of the few laboratory species that form selective relationships, manifested as "partner preferences" for familiar partners versus strangers. While both sexes exhibit strong partner preferences, this similarity in outward behavior likely results from sex-specific neurobiological mechanisms. We recently demonstrated that in operant trials, females worked hardest for access to familiar conspecifics of either sex, while males worked equally hard for access to any female, indicating a sex difference in social motivation. As tests were performed with one social target at a time, males might have experienced a ceiling effect, and familiar females might be more relatively rewarding in a choice scenario. Here we performed an operant social choice task in which voles lever-pressed to gain temporary access to either the chamber containing their mate or one containing a novel opposite-sex vole. Females worked hardest to access their mate, while males pressed at similar rates for either female. Individual male behavior was heterogeneous, congruent with multiple mating strategies in the wild. Voles exhibited preferences for favorable over unfavorable environments in a non-social operant task, indicating that lack of social preference does not reflect lack of discrimination. Natural variation in oxytocin receptor genotype at the intronic single nucleotide polymorphism NT213739 was associated with oxytocin receptor density, and predicted individual variation in stranger-directed aggressive behavior. These findings suggest that convergent preference behavior in male and female voles results from sex-divergent pathways, particularly in the realm of social motivation.

Social isolation influences depression- and anxiety-related disorders and cardiac function. Oxytocin may mediate these conditions through interactions with social behavior, emotion, and cardiovascular function, via central and/or peripheral mechanisms. The present study investigated the influence of oxytocin antagonism using L-368,899, a selective oxytocin receptor antagonist that crosses the blood-brain barrier, on depression- and anxiety-related behaviors and heart rate in prairie voles. This rodent species has translational value for investigating interactions of social stress, behavior, cardiac responses, and oxytocin function. Adult female prairie voles were socially isolated or co-housed with a sibling for 4 weeks. A subset of animals in each housing condition was subjected to 4 sessions of acute L-368,899 (20 mg/kg, ip) or saline administration followed by a depression- or anxiety-related behavioral assessment. A subset of co-housed animals was evaluated for cardiac function following acute administration of L-368,899 (20 mg/kg, ip) and during behavioral assessments. Social isolation (vs. co-housing) increased depression- and anxiety-related behaviors. In isolated animals, L-368,899 (vs. vehicle) did not influence anxiety-related behaviors but exacerbated depression-related behaviors. In co-housed animals, L-368,899 exacerbated depression-related behaviors and increased heart rate at baseline and during behavioral tests. Social isolation produces emotion-related behaviors in prairie voles; central and/or peripheral oxytocin antagonism exacerbates these behavioral signs. Oxytocin antagonism induces depression-relevant behaviors and increases basal and stressor-reactive heart rate in co-housed prairie voles, similar to the consequences of social isolation demonstrated in this model. These results provide translational value for humans who experience behavioral and cardiac consequences of loneliness or social stress.

The growth and physiology of soil microorganisms, which play vital roles in biogeochemical cycling, are shaped by both current and historical soil environmental conditions. Here, we developed and applied a genome-resolved metagenomic implementation of quantitative stable isotope probing (qSIP) with an H218O labeling experiment to identify actively growing soil microorganisms and their genomic capacities. qSIP enabled measurement of taxon-specific growth because isotopic incorporation into microbial DNA requires production of new genome copies. We studied three Mediterranean grassland soils across a rainfall gradient to evaluate the hypothesis that historic precipitation levels are an important factor controlling trait selection. We used qSIP-informed genome-resolved metagenomics to resolve the active subset of soil community members and identify their characteristic ecophysiological traits. Higher year-round precipitation levels correlated with higher activity and growth rates of flagellar motile microorganisms. In addition to heavily isotopically labeled bacteria, we identified abundant isotope-labeled phages, suggesting phage-induced cell lysis likely contributed to necromass production at all three sites. Further, there was a positive correlation between phage activity and the activity of putative phage hosts. Contrary to our expectations, the capacity to decompose the diverse complex carbohydrates common in soil organic matter or oxidize methanol and carbon monoxide were broadly distributed across active and inactive bacteria in all three soils, implying that these traits are not highly selected for by historical precipitation. IMPORTANCE Soil moisture is a critical factor that strongly shapes the lifestyle of soil organisms by changing access to nutrients, controlling oxygen diffusion, and regulating the potential for mobility. We identified active microorganisms in three grassland soils with similar mineral contexts, yet different historic rainfall inputs, by

Viruses shape microbial communities, food web dynamics, and carbon and nutrient cycling in diverse ecosystems. However, little is known about the patterns and drivers of viral community composition, particularly in soil, precluding a predictive understanding of viral impacts on terrestrial habitats. To investigate soil viral community assembly processes, here we analyzed 43 soil viromes from a rainfall manipulation experiment in a Mediterranean grassland in California. We identified 5,315 viral populations (viral operational taxonomic units [vOTUs] with a representative sequence ≥10 kbp) and found that viral community composition exhibited a highly significant distance-decay relationship within the 200-m2 field site. This pattern was recapitulated by the intrapopulation microheterogeneity trends of prevalent vOTUs (detected in ≥90% of the viromes), which tended to exhibit negative correlations between spatial distance and the genomic similarity of their predominant allelic variants. Although significant spatial structuring was also observed in the bacterial and archaeal communities, the signal was dampened relative to the viromes, suggesting differences in local assembly drivers for viruses and prokaryotes and/or differences in the temporal scales captured by viromes and total DNA. Despite the overwhelming spatial signal, evidence for environmental filtering was revealed in a protein-sharing network analysis, wherein a group of related vOTUs predicted to infect actinobacteria was shown to be significantly enriched in low-moisture samples distributed throughout the field. Overall, our results indicate a highly diverse, dynamic, active, and spatially structured soil virosphere capable of rapid responses to changing environmental conditions.

The properties of grazed grassland soils are frequently degraded in tropical areas. The objective of this work was to review the literature on the theory and results of sampling and analysis of the spatial variability of grassland soil properties worldwide and in Ecuador. The methodology, results, and discussion of 15 articles were reviewed, available in the databases: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet, and SpringerLink, and the respective theory of 5 books. It was found that worldwide there are soil sampling works that evaluate the spatial variability of their properties, while at the national level, the samples do not consider such variability. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct research in Ecuador on the spatial variability of soil properties with grasslands, allowing reliable decisions to be made for their management and conservation., Las propiedades de los suelos con pastizales de pastoreo frecuentemente se degradan en las zonas tropicales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar la literatura de la teoría y resultados del muestreo y análisis de la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades del suelo de pastizales a nivel mundial y en Ecuador. Se revisó la metodología, resultados y discusión de 15 artículos del tema, disponibles en las bases de datos: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet y SpingerLink; y la teoría respectiva de 5 libros. Se encontró que a nivel mundial existen trabajos de muestreo de suelos que evalúan la variabilidad espacial de sus propiedades; mientras que a nivel nacional los muestreos no consideran dicha variabilidad. Es importante llevar a cabo en Ecuador investigaciones de la variabilidad espacial de propiedades del suelo de pastizales, que permitan tomar decisiones fiables para su manejo y conservación.

The properties of grazed grassland soils are frequently degraded in tropical areas. The objective of this work was to review the literature on the theory and results of sampling and analysis of the spatial variability of grassland soil properties worldwide and in Ecuador. The methodology, results, and discussion of 15 articles were reviewed, available in the databases: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet, and SpringerLink, and the respective theory of 5 books. It was found that worldwide there are soil sampling works that evaluate the spatial variability of their properties, while at the national level, the samples do not consider such variability. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct research in Ecuador on the spatial variability of soil properties with grasslands, allowing reliable decisions to be made for their management and conservation., Las propiedades de los suelos con pastizales de pastoreo frecuentemente se degradan en las zonas tropicales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar la literatura de la teoría y resultados del muestreo y análisis de la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades del suelo de pastizales a nivel mundial y en Ecuador. Se revisó la metodología, resultados y discusión de 15 artículos del tema, disponibles en las bases de datos: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet y SpingerLink; y la teoría respectiva de 5 libros. Se encontró que a nivel mundial existen trabajos de muestreo de suelos que evalúan la variabilidad espacial de sus propiedades; mientras que a nivel nacional los muestreos no consideran dicha variabilidad. Es importante llevar a cabo en Ecuador investigaciones de la variabilidad espacial de propiedades del suelo de pastizales, que permitan tomar decisiones fiables para su manejo y conservación.

The properties of grazed grassland soils are frequently degraded in tropical areas. The objective of this work was to review the literature on the theory and results of sampling and analysis of the spatial variability of grassland soil properties worldwide and in Ecuador. The methodology, results, and discussion of 15 articles were reviewed, available in the databases: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet, and SpringerLink, and the respective theory of 5 books. It was found that worldwide there are soil sampling works that evaluate the spatial variability of their properties, while at the national level, the samples do not consider such variability. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct research in Ecuador on the spatial variability of soil properties with grasslands, allowing reliable decisions to be made for their management and conservation., Las propiedades de los suelos con pastizales de pastoreo frecuentemente se degradan en las zonas tropicales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar la literatura de la teoría y resultados del muestreo y análisis de la variabilidad espacial de las propiedades del suelo de pastizales a nivel mundial y en Ecuador. Se revisó la metodología, resultados y discusión de 15 artículos del tema, disponibles en las bases de datos: Scopus, SciELO, ScienceDirect, Scimago Journal & Country Rank, Dialnet y SpingerLink; y la teoría respectiva de 5 libros. Se encontró que a nivel mundial existen trabajos de muestreo de suelos que evalúan la variabilidad espacial de sus propiedades; mientras que a nivel nacional los muestreos no consideran dicha variabilidad. Es importante llevar a cabo en Ecuador investigaciones de la variabilidad espacial de propiedades del suelo de pastizales, que permitan tomar decisiones fiables para su manejo y conservación.

Anthropogenic nitrogen (N) input is known to alter the soil microbiome, but how N enrichment influences the abundance, alpha-diversity and community structure of N-cycling functional microbial communities in grasslands remains poorly understood. Here, we collected soils from plant communities subjected to up to 9 years of annual N-addition (10 g N m⁻² per year using urea as a N-source) and from unfertilized plots (control) in 30 grasslands worldwide spanning a large range of climatic and soil conditions. We focused on three key microbial groups responsible for two essential processes of the global N cycle: N₂ fixation (soil diazotrophs) and nitrification (AOA: ammonia-oxidizing archaea and AOB: ammonia-oxidizing bacteria). We targeted soil diazotrophs, AOA and AOB using Illumina MiSeq sequencing and measured the abundance (gene copy numbers) using quantitative PCR. N-addition shifted the structure of the diazotrophic communities, although their alpha-diversity and abundance were not affected. AOA and AOB responded differently to N-addition. The abundance and alpha-diversity of AOB increased, and their community structure shifted with N-addition. In contrast, AOA were not affected by N-addition. AOA abundance outnumbered AOB in control plots under conditions of low N availability, whereas N-addition favoured copiotrophic AOB. Overall, N-addition showed a low impact on soil diazotrophs and AOA while effects for AOB communities were considerable. These results reveal that long-term N-addition has important ecological implications for key microbial groups involved in two critical soil N-cycling processes. Increased AOB abundance and community shifts following N-addition may change soil N-cycling, as larger population sizes may promote higher rates of ammonia oxidation and subsequently increase N loss via gaseous and soil N-leaching. These findings bring us a step closer to predicting the responses and feedbacks of microbial-mediated N-cycling processes to long

Butterfly monitoring enjoys a growing popularity in Europe, mainly supported by Butterfly Conservation Europe (BCE) and its partners. While Butterfly Monitoring Schemes are present in a growing number of countries and new ones are being initiated in many places, long time-series are currently only available for a limited number of countries. For the indicators in this report, we used data from 22 countries (Figure 1): Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Jersey, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom.The indicators use field data up to and including the 2020 field season. The method for calculating indicators has been greatly improved and enhanced. During 2020, more than 2,500 standardised butterfly transects distributed across 22 monitoring schemes were used to inform the EU27 Grassland Butterfly Indicator and almost 5,000 from 25 schemes for the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Figure 2). Since 1990 over 6,350 and 11,500 separate transects have contributed to the EU27 and Europe indicators, respectively.

Interspecific associations may limit the dispersal of individual species, but may also facilitate it when entire co-evolved systems expand their geographic ranges. We tested the recent proposal that episodic land bridges linked Africa and Madagascar at three stages during the Cenozoic by comparing divergence estimates of Madagascar’s angiosperm taxa with their dispersal mechanisms. Plants that rely on gravity for seed dispersal indicate at least two episodes of land connection between Africa and Madagascar, in the Early Palaeocene and Early Oligocene. Seed dispersal by strepsirrhine primates possibly evolved in the Palaeocene, with the divergence of at least one endemic Malagasy angiosperm genus, Burasaia (Menispermaceae). This genus may have facilitated the lemur colonization of Madagascar. Frugivory, nectarivory and gummivory probably generalized in the Oligocene, with the co-evolution of modern lemurs and at least 10 new Malagasy angiosperm families. In the Late Miocene, more angiosperms were probably brought from Africa by birds via a discontinuous land connection, and radiated on Madagascar in diffuse association with birds (asities) and dwarf nocturnal lemurs (cheirogaleids). During the same connective episode, Madagascar was probably colonized by hippopotamuses, which both followed and re-seeded a variety of plants, forming the grassy Uapaca ‘tapia’ forest and ericoid ‘savoka’ thicket.

A growing body of work examines the direct and indirect effects of climate change on ecosystems, typically by using manipulative experiments at a single site or performing meta-analyses across many independent experiments. However, results from single-site studies tend to have limited generality. Although meta-analytic approaches can help overcome this by exploring trends across sites, the inherent limitations in combining disparate datasets from independent approaches remain a major challenge. In this paper, we present a globally distributed experimental network that can be used to disentangle the direct and indirect effects of climate change. We discuss how natural gradients, experimental approaches, and statistical techniques can be combined to best inform predictions about responses to climate change, and we present a globally distributed experiment that utilizes natural environmental gradients to better understand long-term community and ecosystem responses to environmental change. The warming and (species) removal in mountains (WaRM) network employs experimental warming and plant species removals at high- and low-elevation sites in a factorial design to examine the combined and relative effects of climatic warming and the loss of dominant species on community structure and ecosystem function, both above- and belowground. The experimental design of the network allows for increasingly common statistical approaches to further elucidate the direct and indirect effects of warming. We argue that combining ecological observations and experiments along gradients is a powerful approach to make stronger predictions of how ecosystems will function in a warming world as species are lost, or gained, in local communities.

Anthropogenic climate change threatens ecosystem functioning. Soil biodiversity is essential for maintaining the health of terrestrial systems, but how climate change affects the richness and abundance of soil microbial communities remains unresolved. We examined the effects of warming, altered precipitation and annual biomass removal on grassland soil bacterial, fungal and protistan communities over 7 years to determine how these representative climate changes impact microbial biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. We show that experimental warming and the concomitant reductions in soil moisture play a predominant role in shaping microbial biodiversity by decreasing the richness of bacteria (9.6%), fungi (14.5%) and protists (7.5%). Our results also show positive associations between microbial biodiversity and ecosystem functional processes, such as gross primary productivity and microbial biomass. We conclude that the detrimental effects of biodiversity loss might be more severe in a warmer world.