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Police discretion has large potential consequences for public trust and safety; however, little is known about the extent of this discretion. I show that arrests critically depend on which officer responds to a 911 call; 1 standard deviation increase in officer arrest propensity raises arrest likelihood by 40%. High arrest officers are more likely to be white and have less experience. I find mixed evidence that arrest propensity is related to arrest quality. High arrest officers use force more often and make more low-level arrests, while they also have a higher share of low-level arrests that result in conviction.

En los últimos años, desde diferentes ámbitos institucionales y, de forma especial, en el seno de la Unión Europea (UE) se han realizado pronunciamientos recurrentes en relación con la necesidad de reconocer a la Economía Social (ES) como una realidad diferencial a la empresa, que prioriza una serie de resultados al margen de los económicos y financieros. Paralelamente, el reciente compromiso contraído por las Naciones Unidas (NU) en relación con la Agenda 2030, materializado en los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) ha atraído el foco de atención sobre este ámbito, por la alineación de los principios y valores que rigen las entidades de ES y dichos objetivos, y el consiguiente papel que éstas pueden tener en la consecución de los retos fijados. En línea con estos planteamientos, la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia ha sido la primera en contar con legislación propia en materia de ES, la Ley de Economía Social de Galicia (LESG) aprobada en 2016. Esta normativa hace hincapié en dos aspectos: la adscripción al territorio y el fomento del empleo. Precisamente lo anterior tiene una gran influencia sobre dos objetivos comunes a la ES y los ODS: el reparto equilibrado de la riqueza y el fomento del empleo de calidad. Igualmente, permite avanzar soluciones para alguno de los problemas más acuciantes del complejo contexto sociodemográfico gallego actual. En este trabajo se estudia el caso gallego como ejemplo de buenas prácticas para el fomento y consolidación del tejido de ES, que permite afrontar retos de diferente naturaleza a partir de la combinación de la actividad económica y la sostenibilidad., In recent years, from different institutional levels, and especially within the European Union (EU), there have been recurrent pronouncements regarding the need to accept Social Economy (SE) as a company distinguishing factor, which prioritizes a series of results other than the economic and financial ones. These statements have been accompanied by a recommendation to include this area of the economy in Member States legislation and government policies. At the same time, the recent commitment of the United Nations to the 2030 Agenda, embodied in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), has drawn attention to this area, by aligning the principles and values governing entities. The Galician Autonomous Community was the first to have its own rules on SE. Based on Community and national references, Galicia has had its own legislation in this field since 2016. On the basis of the study of the Autonomous Community Regulation, it should be noted that the special emphasis on two expected results of the regulated institutional framework emerges in a differentiated way: the assignment to the territory and the development of employment. This has a major influence on two objectives common to the SE and the SDGs: the balanced distribution of wealth and the development of quality employment. It also provides solutions to some of the most pressing problems in the complex Galician socio-demographic context. In this paper we study the Galician case as an example of good practices for the promotion and consolidation of the SE fabric, which allows us to face different kind of challenges based on the combination of economic activity and sustainability., Escuela de Estudios Cooperativos, Fac. de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, TRUE, pub

This article reassesses the conventional wisdom that public-sector jobs have worse pay but better amenities than equivalent private-sector jobs, using data from 22 European countries and the USA. Earnings gaps are shown to be heterogeneous across countries-public sector work carries a premium in Europe but a penalty in the USA. However, whereas European public-sector workers report better job amenities-better job security and work-life balance-than their private-sector counterparts, there are no public-private amenity differentials for US workers. Public-sector work also has fewer pay-for-performance schemes. Finally, the public sector does not seem to ensure a fairer work environment, compared to the private sector, in terms of workplace discrimination and harassment. These stylized facts inform the external validity of extrapolating individual case studies to different contexts.

Non-random assignment of students to teachers can bias value added estimates of teachers' causal effects. Rothstein (2008a, b) shows that typical value added models indicate large counter-factual effects of 5th grade teachers on students' 4th grade learning, indicating that classroom assignments are far from random. This paper quantifies the resulting biases in estimates of 5th grade teachers' causal effects from several value added models, under varying assumptions about the assignment process. If assignments are assumed to depend only on observables, the most commonly used specifications are subject to important bias but other feasible specifications are nearly free of bias. I also consider the case where assignments depend on unobserved variables. I use the across-classroom variance of observables to calibrate several models of the sorting process. Results indicate that even the best feasible value added models may be substantially biased, with the magnitude of the bias depending on the amount of information available for use in classroom assignments.

Non-random assignment of students to teachers can bias value added estimates of teachers' causal effects. Rothstein (2008a, b) shows that typical value added models indicate large counter-factual effects of 5th grade teachers on students' 4th grade learning, indicating that classroom assignments are far from random. This paper quantifies the resulting biases in estimates of 5th grade teachers' causal effects from several value added models, under varying assumptions about the assignment process. If assignments are assumed to depend only on observables, the most commonly used specifications are subject to important bias but other feasible specifications are nearly free of bias. I also consider the case where assignments depend on unobserved variables. I use the across-classroom variance of observables to calibrate several models of the sorting process. Results indicate that even the best feasible value added models may be substantially biased, with the magnitude of the bias depending on the amount of information available for use in classroom assignments.

The subject of the article is an organization of local government authorities in the implementation of tasks related to security and defence. Attention is focused on issues of employment and organization of work. The issues addressed relate to the adequacy of employees’ knowledge and experience within the limits of their professional duties, the adaptation of the number of employees to the purpose of the tasks and the public opinion on the activities of the security bureaus. The article is based on the results of the qualitative and quantitative studies carried out within the framework of the project ”Local self-government in Polish non-military defence system” conducted by the Department of Security and Defence Systems from the Faculty of Logistics in Military, University of Technology, during 2015-2016, in Mazowieckie Province.

I present results from a partial re-analysis of the Kenyan school tracking experiment first described in Duflo et. al (2011). My results suggest that, in a developing country school system with state-employed teachers, tracking can reduce short-run test scores of initially low-ability students with high learning potential. The highest scoring students subjected only to the tracking intervention scored well below comparable students in untracked classrooms at the end of the intervention. In contrast, students assigned to tracking under the experimental alternative teacher intervention experienced gains from tracking that increased across the outcome distribution. These alternative teachers were drawn from local areas, exhibited significantly higher effort levels and faced different incentives to produce learning. I conclude that although Pareto-improvements in test scores from tracking are possible, they are not guaranteed.

I present results from a partial re-analysis of the Kenyan school tracking experiment first described in Duflo et. al (2011). My results suggest that, in a developing country school system with state-employed teachers, tracking can reduce short-run test scores of initially low-ability students with high learning potential. The highest scoring students subjected only to the tracking intervention scored well below comparable students in untracked classrooms at the end of the intervention. In contrast, students assigned to tracking under the experimental alternative teacher intervention experienced gains from tracking that increased across the outcome distribution. These alternative teachers were drawn from local areas, exhibited significantly higher effort levels and faced different incentives to produce learning. I conclude that although Pareto-improvements in test scores from tracking are possible, they are not guaranteed.

Este artículo examina el impacto macroeconómico de la implementación de reformas en el ámbito de los salarios y el empleo público, en particular en momentos de consolidación fiscal. La reforma de la masa salarial de las Administraciones Públicas (AAPP) ha formado parte de las estrategias de respuesta a las consecuencias de la crisis de deuda soberana en numerosos países de la Unión Europea. Dichas reformas implicaron, en algunos casos, la introducción de medidas de ahorro, como parte de paquetes de ajuste fiscal que habitualmente han pesado más sobre el uso de otros instrumentos presupuestarios, en particular, la inversión pública. En general, las medidas de ajuste fiscal, de acuerdo con los modelos y estimaciones de multiplicadores fiscales disponibles, habrían tenido efectos adversos sobre el crecimiento económico en el corto plazo. No obstante, en el caso concreto de las orientadas a contener la masa salarial de las AAPP, dado que su impacto incide de manera directa en la dinámica del mercado de trabajo, parte de estos efectos de corto plazo se podrían compensar, de acuerdo con la evidencia disponible, a través de las potenciales ganancias de competitividad y eficiencia que pudieran producirse. En este artículo se proporciona evidencia de estos efectos de medio y largo plazo, sobre la base de información macro y microeconómica para el área del euro y la Unión Europea en su conjunto. Se concluye que, para que estos efectos mitigadores aparezcan, las políticas de reforma de la masa salarial de las AAPP deben diseñarse con una orientación de medio plazo (reformas estructurales). Asimismo, se discute el modo en que dichos efectos dependen de circunstancias idiosincrásicas de los países (tales como el marco institucional), This paper examines the overall macroeconomic impact arising from reform in government wages and employment, at times of fiscal consolidation. Reform of these two components of the government wage bill appeared necessary for containing the deterioration of the public finances in several EU countries, as a consequence of the financial crisis. Such reforms entailed in some instances, but not always, the implementation of cost cutting measures affecting the government wage bill, as part of broader consolidation packages that typically hinged more heavily on other fiscal instruments, like public investment. While such measures have adverse short-term macroeconomic effects, public wage bill restraining policy changes present the idiosyncrasy that they can yield medium- to longer-term benefits due to possible competitiveness and efficiency gains through their impact on labour market dynamics. This paper provides some evidence of such medium- to long-run effects, based on a wealth of micro and macro data in the euro area and the EU. It concludes that appropriately designed government wage bill moderation could indeed produce positive dividends to the economy, which depend on certain country-specific conditions. These gains can be reinforced by relevant fiscal-structural reforms

Using two surveys, we study how respondents process visual cues to identify the political orientation (left- vs. right-wing) of members of the French National Assembly (referred to as “deputies”), based on official photographs only, to test the type of heuristic that they use. We first confirm that respondents outperform random guesses. Second, we find that their categorizations correlate with observable characteristics (gender, tie color, jewelry) and subjective assessments of deputies’ personality traits (attractiveness, competence, trustworthiness). Third, the objective visual cues that respondents use are consistent with the actual characteristics of left- and right-wing deputies, and respondents mistakenly react to subjective personality traits that differ little across the two groups of deputies. Fourth, left- and right-wing respondents use the same cues in the same way, attractiveness being the only exception. Fifth, the magnitude of the marginal impact of a characteristic on the probability of a respondent categorizing a photograph as left- or right-wing increases strictly with the representativeness of that characteristic. Finally, we find evidence that some characteristics correlate with categorization errors. Findings 1, 2, 4, and the finding that respondents use cues in the correct way are consistent with both Bayesian behavior and the representativeness heuristic. Findings 5, 6, and the finding that respondents react to subjective cues that do not differ across groups are at odds with Bayesian inference but consistent with the representativeness heuristic suggested by Kahneman and Tversky (1972) and recently modelled by Gennaioli and Shleifer (2010), and Bordalo et al. (forthcoming)., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

En este artículo investigamos los determinantes estructurales de corto y largo plazo de la heterogeneidad existente entre países en los diferenciales salariales entre trabajadores públicos y privados, utilizando una muestra amplia de países de la OCDE. Usamos tanto microdatos (EU-SILC, 2004-2012) como datos agregados (1970-2014). Encontramos tres resultados principales. En primer lugar, al analizar los diferenciales salariales basados en datos individuales encontramos que más de la mitad de la variación en la sección cruzada puede explicarse por el grado de exposición a la competencia internacional, así como por el tamaño de la fuerza laboral del sector público y su composición (grado de intensidad en la provisión de bienes públicos puros), mientras que las instituciones del mercado de trabajo desempeñan un papel muy limitado. En segundo lugar, encontramos que los diferenciales salariales entre el sector público y el privado se han reducido significativamente durante la reciente crisis financiera. Sin embargo, esta reducción se explica por los procesos de consolidación fiscal, y no por factores estructurales. En tercer lugar, mostramos que en el largo plazo la apertura al comercio internacional y mejoras en la calidad institucional de los Gobiernos están asociadas a caídas en el diferencial salarial. Estos resultados empíricos son coherentes con una rama de la literatura teórica que enfatiza la existencia de procesos de determinación de los salarios no competitivos en el sector público, We uncover the short- and long-run structural determinants of the existing cross-country heterogeneity in public-private pay differentials for a broad set of OECD countries. We explore micro data (EU-SILC, 2004-2012) and macro data (1970-2014). Three results stand out. First, when looking at pay gaps based on individual data, more than half of the cross-sectional variation of the sample can be accounted for by the degree of exposure to international competition, and by the size of the public sector labour force and its composition (i.e. the intensity in the provision of pure public goods), while labour market institutions play a very limited role. Second, we find that pay gaps have narrowed signifi cantly during the recent fi nancial crisis, nevertheless, this decrease can be explained by the widespread process of fi scal consolidation rather than by structural factors. Third, we fi nd that in the log-run openness to international trade and improvements in the institutional quality of governments are associated with decreases in the public-private wage gap. Our fi ndings can be rationalised by a body of research stressing non-competitive wage settlements in the public sector

Incluye bibliografía, Este artículo analiza la evolución del número de empleados al servicio de las Administraciones Públicas (AAPP) en España a lo largo de la crisis y el proceso reciente de consolidación fiscal. Caracterizamos los cambios en la estructura y composición del empleo de las AAPP entre sectores, administraciones y tipo de contrato, así como al impacto de las medidas discrecionales recientes en la dinámica de las contrataciones de las AAPP y el número de horas trabajadas por los empleados públicos. El artículo también proporciona una discusión de las distintas fuentes estadísticas disponibles para el estudio de la actividad de las AAPP como empleadoras, We analyze the evolution of General Government employment in Spain over the economic crisis and the recent fiscal consolidation process. We characterize the changes in the structure and composition of General government workforce between economics sectors, level of administration, and type of contract. We also illustrate the impact of the most recent discretionary policy measures on the dynamics of hiring by the General Government sector and on the number of hours worked by public employees. In the paper we also provide review of the different statistical sources available on the number of public employees, including a discussion on their usefulness and an attempt at reconciling differences among them

En este trabajo utilizamos datos administrativos para estudiar la brecha salarial entre empleados de los sectores público y privado en España, diferenciando por sexo, nivel de formación y tipo de contrato. Estimamos distribuciones salariales condicionadas por características observadas por separado para hombres y mujeres en el sector público y en el sector privado, y usamos la estructura longitudinal de los datos para controlar por la selección en inobservables. Encontramos una prima salarial positiva para hombres y mujeres en el sector público, incluso teniendo en cuenta las características y la selección en inobservables, la brecha salarial media incondicional de 35 puntos se reduce a 20 cuando tenemos en cuenta diferencias en las características observadas, y a 10 una vez se controla por la selección en inobservables. Por otro lado, encontramos una variación sustancial de la brecha a lo largo de la distribución salarial cuando controlamos por características. Esta variación, sin embargo, se ve compensada por patrones opuestos de selección en el sector público: mientras observamos una selección positiva en la parte inferior de la distribución salarial del sector público, los trabajadores de la parte superior de la distribución de dicho sector se seleccionan negativamente, This paper studies the public sector wage gap in Spain by gender, skill level and type of contract, using recent administrative data from tax records. We estimate wage distributions in the presence of covariates separately for men and women in the public and in the private sectors, and we take advantage of the longitudinal structure of the data to control for selection. We find a positive public wage premium for men and women even after accounting for characteristics and endogenous selection, the observed average gap in hourly wages of 35 log points is reduced to 20 when accounting for observed characteristics, and to 10 once endogenous selection is also taken into consideration. We also find substantial variation in the public premium along the wage distribution once observed characteristics are accounted for. This variation, however, is offset by opposite patterns of selection into the public sector: while we observe positive selection into the public sector at the bottom of the wage distribution, workers at the top of the distribution select negatively into the public sector

This study investigates the wage gap between the public and private sectors in Brazil. The analysis is carried out with 2009 microdata from the Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) and it takes account its complex sample design. The main contribution of this study is the estimation of a switching endogenous regression model that corrects the selection bias in the choice of employment sector. This model allows for the identification of some factors that determine the entrance of the individual in the public sector labor market. The public-private wage gap is calculated by gender as labor supply varies significantly between women and men. The results show that public sector wages are higher than those in the private sector. In particular, the public-private wage gap for women is higher than for men.

The Public Employment Service often delivers much of the employment policy including active labour market programmes in many member states in the EU, yet we know little about its effectiveness in general. This paper provides a quantitative assessment of the potential impact of the modernisation programme of the Hungarian Public Employment service between 2004 and 2008. Using data at the level of local offices, I calculate programme effects using a difference-in-difference estimator. Results show that the programme has increased re-employment rates significantly, by 6%. The modernisation was thus a moderately effective but relatively inexpensive intervention, similar in terms of cost-effectiveness to the better active labour market programmes in Hungary.

The Public Employment Service often delivers much of the employment policy including active labour market programmes in many member states in the EU, yet we know little about its effectiveness in general. This paper provides a quantitative assessment of the potential impact of the modernisation programme of the Hungarian Public Employment service between 2004 and 2008. Using data at the level of local offices, I calculate programme effects using a difference-in-difference estimator. Results show that the programme has increased re-employment rates significantly, by 6%. The modernisation was thus a moderately effective but relatively inexpensive intervention, similar in terms of cost-effectiveness to the better active labour market programmes in Hungary.

The Public Employment Service often delivers much of the employment policy including active labour market programmes in many member states in the EU, yet we know little about its effectiveness in general. This paper provides a quantitative assessment of the potential impact of the modernisation programme of the Hungarian Public Employment service between 2004 and 2008. Using data at the level of local offices, I calculate programme effects using a difference-in-difference estimator. Results show that the programme has increased re-employment rates significantly, by 6%. The modernisation was thus a moderately effective but relatively inexpensive intervention, similar in terms of cost-effectiveness to the better active labour market programmes in Hungary.

Previous research has established that good-looking political candidates win more votes. We extend this line of research by examining differences between parties on the left and on the right of the political spectrum. Our study combines data on personal votes in real elections with a web survey in which 2,513 non-Finnish respondents evaluated the facial appearance of 1,357 Finnish political candidates. We find that political candidates on the right are better looking in both municipal and parliamentary elections and that they have a larger beauty premium in municipal, but not in parliamentary, elections. As municipal candidates are relatively unknown, the beauty-premium gap indicates that voters – especially those to the right – use beauty as a cue for candidate ideology or quality in the municipal elections., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Previous research has established that good-looking political candidates win more votes. We extend this line of research by examining differences between parties on the left and on the right of the political spectrum. Our study combines data on personal votes in real elections with a web survey in which 2,513 non-Finnish respondents evaluated the facial appearance of 1,357 Finnish political candidates. We find that political candidates on the right are better looking in both municipal and parliamentary elections and that they have a larger beauty premium in municipal, but not in parliamentary, elections. As municipal candidates are relatively unknown, the beauty-premium gap indicates that voters – especially those to the right – use beauty as a cue for candidate ideology or quality in the municipal elections., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

The Navy’s promotion-retention process involves two successive decisions: The Navy decides whether an individual is selected for promotion, and then, conditional on the Navy’s decision, the sailor decides whether to reenlist or leave the Navy. Rates of promotion and retention depend on individuals’ demographic and other characteristics, wars and economic conditions and factors that the Navy policy makers can control. Using estimates of these decision-making processes, we examine two important public policy questions: Do Navy promotion and retention rates differ across race and sex? Can the Navy alter its promotion and other policies to better retain sailors, or do war and civilian labor market conditions determine retention?

The Navy’s promotion-retention process involves two successive decisions: The Navy decides whether an individual is selected for promotion, and then, conditional on the Navy’s decision, the sailor decides whether to reenlist or leave the Navy. Rates of promotion and retention depend on individuals’ demographic and other characteristics, wars and economic conditions and factors that the Navy policy makers can control. Using estimates of these decision-making processes, we examine two important public policy questions: Do Navy promotion and retention rates differ across race and sex? Can the Navy alter its promotion and other policies to better retain sailors, or do war and civilian labor market conditions determine retention?

This paper measures the public-private wage differential in the West Bank and Gaza and describes its dynamics before and during the second Intifada using data from the Palestinian Labour Force Survey (PLFS) of the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). Because the distribution of individual characteristics and their returns might differ across workers, the wage differential is decomposed into two components: a “human capital” effect and an “unexplained” effect. The results show that in the pre-Intifada period, the wage gap between the public and private sectors had narrowed both in the West Bank and Gaza. However, a sharp increase is seen in the post-Intifada Period. Moreover, most of this increase comes from an increase in “returns” to skill composition in the public sector (unexplained effect), rather than a change in the skill composition of public sector workers (human capital effect). An analysis of the public-private sector wage gap from 1998 to 2006 at various points along the wage distribution using recent quantile regression econometric techniques shows that the wage premium (penalty) for the public sector varies across the distribution, being higher (lower) at the lowest end of the wage distribution and decreasing (increasing) along the wage distribution; it becomes negative in the top percentiles.

While promotion is an important mechanism for allocating labor within organizations, relatively little is known about the determinants of promotion in the highly diverse and traditionally heavily regulated Australian labor markets. This study uses unique data from the Victorian Public Sector Census 2004 to identify the extent and nature of bias in the promotion process. Specifically, we use the promotion histories of 16,675 public sector employees to investigate the existence of discrimination in promotion on the basis of gender, disability and cultural diversity. We find that some differences exist in the rate of promotion on the basis of gender, and to a lesser extent, of birthplace, but, importantly, most of these are due to differences in endowments. There are effectively no differences in promotion on the basis of disability. We find that the main driver of promotion in Victorian public sector labor markets is worker effort and performance. Compared to labor markets elsewhere, the Australian public sector is relatively free of discrimination in promotions.

In order to learn more about the teacher supply in Switzerland, this paper analyses eleven surveys of graduates of all Swiss universities for the period of 1981-2001. We estimate wages for teachers and non-teachers with the help of selection models. The predicted individual wage differentials between teaching and all other jobs indicate a positive self-selection of teachers into teaching. Furthermore the reaction of teachers supply on the wage differential shows a wage elasticity of 0.41. As in other studies, the wage differential is counter cyclical, due to the static wage setting of the public. As a consequence, the public sector itself is creating at least a part of the cyclical pattern of teacher shortages and oversupplies., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

In order to learn more about the teacher supply in Switzerland, this paper analyses eleven surveys of graduates of all Swiss universities for the period of 1981-2001. We estimate wages for teachers and non-teachers with the help of selection models. The predicted individual wage differentials between teaching and all other jobs indicate a positive self-selection of teachers into teaching. Furthermore the reaction of teachers supply on the wage differential shows a wage elasticity of 0.41. As in other studies, the wage differential is counter cyclical, due to the static wage setting of the public. As a consequence, the public sector itself is creating at least a part of the cyclical pattern of teacher shortages and oversupplies., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

There is no evidence on the extent of public versus private wage differentials in Turkey. The main objective of this paper is to examine the factors which explain the employment choice and the wage differentials in the public administration, state owned enterprises and the formal private wage sector in Turkey. Selectivity corrected wage equations are estimated for each sector for men and women separately. Oaxaca decomposition of the wage differentials between sectors for men and women are carried out. For this purpose, results of the 1994 Household Expenditure Survey conducted by the State Institute of Statistics are used. The results indicate that when controlled for observed characteristics and sample selection, for men, public administration wages are at parity or lower than private sector wages in particular at the university level. State Economic Enterprise wages for men are higher than private sector wages except at the university level. Opposite results are obtained for women: their wages are at par or higher in public administration than in the private sector. Further, while men's and women's wages are at parity in public administration, there is a large gender wage- gap in the private sector. Lower private returns to schooling are found in public than in the private sector.