Search

The cryosphere (including, snow, glaciers, permafrost, lake and river ice) is an integral element of high-mountain regions, which are home to roughly 10% of the global population. Widespread cryosphere changes affect physical, biological and human systems in the mountains and surrounding lowlands, with impacts evident even in the ocean. Building on the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), this chapter assesses new evidence on observed recent and projected changes in the mountain cryosphere as well as associated impacts, risks and adaptation measures related to natural and human systems. Impacts in response to climate changes independently of changes in the cryosphere are not assessed in this chapter. Polar mountains are included in Chapter 3, except those in Alaska and adjacent Yukon, Iceland, and Scandinavia, which are included in this chapter.

The cryosphere (including, snow, glaciers, permafrost, lake and river ice) is an integral element of high mountain regions, which are home to roughly 10% of the global population. Widespread cryosphere changes affect physical, biological and human systems in the mountains and surrounding lowlands, with impacts evident even in the ocean. Building on the IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report (AR5), this chapter assesses new evidence on observed recent and projected changes in the mountain cryosphere as well as associated impacts, risks and adaptation measures related to natural and human systems. Impacts in response to climate changes independently of changes in the cryosphere are not assessed in this chapter. Polar mountains are included in Chapter 3, except those in Alaska and adjacent Yukon, Iceland and Scandinavia, which are included in this chapter.

The cryosphere (including, snow, glaciers, permafrost, lake and river ice) is an integral element of high-mountain regions, which are home to roughly 10% of the global population. Widespread cryosphere changes affect physical, biological and human systems in the mountains and surrounding lowlands, with impacts evident even in the ocean. Building on the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), this chapter assesses new evidence on observed recent and projected changes in the mountain cryosphere as well as associated impacts, risks and adaptation measures related to natural and human systems. Impacts in response to climate changes independently of changes in the cryosphere are not assessed in this chapter. Polar mountains are included in Chapter 3, except those in Alaska and adjacent Yukon, Iceland, and Scandinavia, which are included in this chapter.

Engabreen is an outlet glacier of the Svartisen Ice Cap located in Northern Norway. It is a unique glacier due to the Svartisen Subglacial Laboratory which allows direct access to the glacier bed. In this study, we combine both sub- and supraglacial observations with ice-flow modelling in order to investigate conditions at the bed of Engabreen both spatially and temporally. We use the full-Stokes model Elmer/Ice and satellite-based surface-velocity maps from 2010 and 2014 to infer patterns of basal friction. Direct measurements of basal sliding and deformation of lower layers of the ice are used to adjust the ice viscosity and provide essential input to the setup of our model and influence the interpretation of the results. We find a clear seasonal cycle in the subglacial conditions at the higher elevation region of the study area and discuss this in relation to the subglacial hydrological system. Our results also reveal an area with an overdeepening where basal friction is significantly lower than elsewhere on the glacier all year round. We attribute this to either water pooling at the base, or saturated sediments and increased strain heating at this location which softens the ice further.

Engabreen is an outlet glacier of the Svartisen Ice Cap located in Northern Norway. It is a unique glacier due to the Svartisen Subglacial Laboratory which allows direct access to the glacier bed. In this study, we combine both sub- and supraglacial observations with ice-flow modelling in order to investigate conditions at the bed of Engabreen both spatially and temporally. We use the full-Stokes model Elmer/Ice and satellite-based surface-velocity maps from 2010 and 2014 to infer patterns of basal friction. Direct measurements of basal sliding and deformation of lower layers of the ice are used to adjust the ice viscosity and provide essential input to the setup of our model and influence the interpretation of the results. We find a clear seasonal cycle in the subglacial conditions at the higher elevation region of the study area and discuss this in relation to the subglacial hydrological system. Our results also reveal an area with an overdeepening where basal friction is significantly lower than elsewhere on the glacier all year round. We attribute this to either water pooling at the base, or saturated sediments and increased strain heating at this location which softens the ice further.

Engabreen is an outlet glacier of the Svartisen Ice Cap located in Northern Norway. It is a unique glacier due to the Svartisen Subglacial Laboratory which allows direct access to the glacier bed. In this study, we combine both sub- and supraglacial observations with ice-flow modelling in order to investigate conditions at the bed of Engabreen both spatially and temporally. We use the full-Stokes model Elmer/Ice and satellite-based surface-velocity maps from 2010 and 2014 to infer patterns of basal friction. Direct measurements of basal sliding and deformation of lower layers of the ice are used to adjust the ice viscosity and provide essential input to the setup of our model and influence the interpretation of the results. We find a clear seasonal cycle in the subglacial conditions at the higher elevation region of the study area and discuss this in relation to the subglacial hydrological system. Our results also reveal an area with an overdeepening where basal friction is significantly lower than elsewhere on the glacier all year round. We attribute this to either water pooling at the base, or saturated sediments and increased strain heating at this location which softens the ice further.

Engabreen is an outlet glacier of the Svartisen Ice Cap located in Northern Norway. It is a unique glacier due to the Svartisen Subglacial Laboratory which allows direct access to the glacier bed. In this study, we combine both sub- and supraglacial observations with ice-flow modelling in order to investigate conditions at the bed of Engabreen both spatially and temporally. We use the full-Stokes model Elmer/Ice and satellite-based surface-velocity maps from 2010 and 2014 to infer patterns of basal friction. Direct measurements of basal sliding and deformation of lower layers of the ice are used to adjust the ice viscosity and provide essential input to the setup of our model and influence the interpretation of the results. We find a clear seasonal cycle in the subglacial conditions at the higher elevation region of the study area and discuss this in relation to the subglacial hydrological system. Our results also reveal an area with an overdeepening where basal friction is significantly lower than elsewhere on the glacier all year round. We attribute this to either water pooling at the base, or saturated sediments and increased strain heating at this location which softens the ice further.

The ability to perform microbial detection and characterization in-field at extreme environments, rather than on returned samples, has the potential to improve the efficiency, relevance and quantity of data from field campaigns. To date, few examples of this approach have been reported. Therefore, we demonstrate that the approach is feasible in subglacial environments by deploying four techniques for microbial detection: real-time polymerase chain reaction; microscopic fluorescence cell counts, adenosine triphosphate bioluminescence assay and recombinant Factor C assay (to detect lipopolysaccharide). Each technique was applied to 12 subglacial ice samples, 12 meltwater samples and two snow samples from Engabreen, Northern Norway. Using this multi-technique approach, the detected biomarker levels were as expected, being highest in debris-rich subglacial ice, moderate in glacial meltwater and low in clean ice (debris-poor) and snow. Principal component analysis was applied to the resulting dataset and could be performed in-field to rapidly aid the allocation of resources for further sample analysis. We anticipate that in-field data collection will allow for multiple rounds of sampling, analysis, interpretation and refinement within a single field campaign, resulting in the collection of larger and more appropriate datasets, ultimately with more efficient science return.

The ability to perform microbial detection and characterization in-field at extreme environments, rather than on returned samples, has the potential to improve the efficiency, relevance and quantity of data from field campaigns. To date, few examples of this approach have been reported. Therefore, we demonstrate that the approach is feasible in subglacial environments by deploying four techniques for microbial detection: real-time polymerase chain reaction; microscopic fluorescence cell counts, adenosine triphosphate bioluminescence assay and recombinant Factor C assay (to detect lipopolysaccharide). Each technique was applied to 12 subglacial ice samples, 12 meltwater samples and two snow samples from Engabreen, Northern Norway. Using this multi-technique approach, the detected biomarker levels were as expected, being highest in debris-rich subglacial ice, moderate in glacial meltwater and low in clean ice (debris-poor) and snow. Principal component analysis was applied to the resulting dataset and could be performed in-field to rapidly aid the allocation of resources for further sample analysis. We anticipate that in-field data collection will allow for multiple rounds of sampling, analysis, interpretation and refinement within a single field campaign, resulting in the collection of larger and more appropriate datasets, ultimately with more efficient science return.

NOTE: Text or symbols not renderable in plain ASCII are indicated by [...]. Abstract is included in .pdf document. The ice streams in the West Antarctica Ice Sheet flow at several hundred metres per year. The lateral increase in speed from typical inland ice sheet speeds of a few metres per year to ice stream speeds of several hundred metres per year occurs over a short distance (~ 2 km) in the outer part of the ice stream known as the marginal shear zone (MSZ). The ice in this zone is highly crevassed and chaotically jumbled. This thesis is an effort to understand the dynamics of the MSZ and to find out whether the velocity of the ice stream is controlled primarily by the stresses in its MSZs or by stresses at the base. This is done by determining the marginal shear stress in one of the marginal shear zones using the ice itself as a stress meter. The observed marginal shear strain rate of 0.14 a(-1) is used to calculate the marginal shear stress from the flow law of ice determined by creep tests on ice cores from a MSZ. The test specimen orientation relative to the stress axes in the tests is chosen on the basis of c-axis fabrics so that horizontal shear across vertical planes parallel to the margin is applied to the ice specimens in the test. The resulting marginal shear stress is (2.2 ± 0.3) x 10(5) Pa. This implies that 63 to 100% of the ice stream's support against gravitational loading comes from the margins and only 37 to 0% from the base, so that the margins play an important role in controlling the ice stream motion. The marginal shear stress value is twice that given by the ice-stream model of Echelmeyer et al. (1994), and the corresponding strain-rate enhancement factors differ greatly (E [...] 1 - 2 from the creep tests vs. E [...] 10 - 12.5 from the model of Echelmeyer et al. (1994)). This large discrepancy may possibly be explained by recrystallization of the ice during or shortly after coring. Estimates of the expected recrystallization time scale ran

NOTE: Text or symbols not renderable in plain ASCII are indicated by [...]. Abstract is included in .pdf document. The ice streams in the West Antarctica Ice Sheet flow at several hundred metres per year. The lateral increase in speed from typical inland ice sheet speeds of a few metres per year to ice stream speeds of several hundred metres per year occurs over a short distance (~ 2 km) in the outer part of the ice stream known as the marginal shear zone (MSZ). The ice in this zone is highly crevassed and chaotically jumbled. This thesis is an effort to understand the dynamics of the MSZ and to find out whether the velocity of the ice stream is controlled primarily by the stresses in its MSZs or by stresses at the base. This is done by determining the marginal shear stress in one of the marginal shear zones using the ice itself as a stress meter. The observed marginal shear strain rate of 0.14 a(-1) is used to calculate the marginal shear stress from the flow law of ice determined by creep tests on ice cores from a MSZ. The test specimen orientation relative to the stress axes in the tests is chosen on the basis of c-axis fabrics so that horizontal shear across vertical planes parallel to the margin is applied to the ice specimens in the test. The resulting marginal shear stress is (2.2 ± 0.3) x 10(5) Pa. This implies that 63 to 100% of the ice stream's support against gravitational loading comes from the margins and only 37 to 0% from the base, so that the margins play an important role in controlling the ice stream motion. The marginal shear stress value is twice that given by the ice-stream model of Echelmeyer et al. (1994), and the corresponding strain-rate enhancement factors differ greatly (E [...] 1 - 2 from the creep tests vs. E [...] 10 - 12.5 from the model of Echelmeyer et al. (1994)). This large discrepancy may possibly be explained by recrystallization of the ice during or shortly after coring. Estimates of the expected recrystallization time scale ran

NOTE: Text or symbols not renderable in plain ASCII are indicated by [...]. Abstract is included in .pdf document. The ice streams in the West Antarctica Ice Sheet flow at several hundred metres per year. The lateral increase in speed from typical inland ice sheet speeds of a few metres per year to ice stream speeds of several hundred metres per year occurs over a short distance (~ 2 km) in the outer part of the ice stream known as the marginal shear zone (MSZ). The ice in this zone is highly crevassed and chaotically jumbled. This thesis is an effort to understand the dynamics of the MSZ and to find out whether the velocity of the ice stream is controlled primarily by the stresses in its MSZs or by stresses at the base. This is done by determining the marginal shear stress in one of the marginal shear zones using the ice itself as a stress meter. The observed marginal shear strain rate of 0.14 a(-1) is used to calculate the marginal shear stress from the flow law of ice determined by creep tests on ice cores from a MSZ. The test specimen orientation relative to the stress axes in the tests is chosen on the basis of c-axis fabrics so that horizontal shear across vertical planes parallel to the margin is applied to the ice specimens in the test. The resulting marginal shear stress is (2.2 ± 0.3) x 10(5) Pa. This implies that 63 to 100% of the ice stream's support against gravitational loading comes from the margins and only 37 to 0% from the base, so that the margins play an important role in controlling the ice stream motion. The marginal shear stress value is twice that given by the ice-stream model of Echelmeyer et al. (1994), and the corresponding strain-rate enhancement factors differ greatly (E [...] 1 - 2 from the creep tests vs. E [...] 10 - 12.5 from the model of Echelmeyer et al. (1994)). This large discrepancy may possibly be explained by recrystallization of the ice during or shortly after coring. Estimates of the expected recrystallization time scale ran

Calibration and validation of glacier mass balance models typically rely on mass balance data derived from measurements at individual points, often along altitudinal gradients, thus neglecting much of the spatial variability of mass balance. Remote sensing data can provide useful additional spatially distributed information, e.g. on surface conditions such as bare ice area, firn cover extent, or snow. We developed a semi-automated procedure to derive glacier-facies maps from Landsat satellite images, and applied it to Engabreen, an outlet glacier from the Svartisen ice cap in northern Norway. These maps, discriminating between firn, snow and ice surfaces, are then used as a reference for mass balance modelling. Facies information shows a general agreement with the available few field observations and results obtained by distributed mass balance modelling. We conclude that Earth Observation products provide a powerful, although as yet poorly exploited tool, for calibration and validation of distributed mass balance models.

Calibration and validation of glacier mass balance models typically rely on mass balance data derived from measurements at individual points, often along altitudinal gradients, thus neglecting much of the spatial variability of mass balance. Remote sensing data can provide useful additional spatially distributed information, e.g. on surface conditions such as bare ice area, firn cover extent, or snow. We developed a semi-automated procedure to derive glacier-facies maps from Landsat satellite images, and applied it to Engabreen, an outlet glacier from the Svartisen ice cap in northern Norway. These maps, discriminating between firn, snow and ice surfaces, are then used as a reference for mass balance modelling. Facies information shows a general agreement with the available few field observations and results obtained by distributed mass balance modelling. We conclude that Earth Observation products provide a powerful, although as yet poorly exploited tool, for calibration and validation of distributed mass balance models.