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Electronic performance monitoring can monitor employee performance, while providing proximal goals and immediate feedback. A warehouse management system was enhanced to depict goal and performance on handheld wireless computers to improve order selection in an auto-parts aftermarket distribution center. Upon the onset of the intervention of an engineered labor standard and electronic performance monitoring, performance immediately increased by 24 units picked per hour per person and was maintained for the duration of the study, an increase of 12.9%. Evidence from this study suggests that performance goals and feedback can be aggregated beyond the work-unit level without decreasing the effectiveness of the intervention.

The effects of task clarification, self-monitoring, and performance feedback on cleaning behaviors of 9 lifeguards in 3 performance areas (vacuuming, lobby tidying, and pool deck maintenance) were investigated using an ABA reversal design at a county swim complex. A specific task in each performance area was used as a behavioral control. Following a task clarification meeting, the percentage of closing tasks completed each night was self-monitored through ratings by lifeguards and managers. Researchers conducted independent ratings of these completed tasks after the staff had left the building. Feedback data were posted daily using line graphs that displayed the percentage of tasks completed correctly from both self-report and researchers' data. Overall performance increased from an average of 45.1% correct behaviors during baseline to an average of 76.9% during intervention then reversed to baseline during follow-up to an average performance of 45.05%.

Employee-based errors result in quality defects that can often impact customer satisfaction. This study examined the effects of a process change and feedback system intervention on error rates of 3 teams of retail furniture distribution warehouse workers. Archival records of error codes were analyzed and aggregated as the measure of quality. The intervention consisted of a process change where teams of 5 employees who had previously been assigned a specific role within the process were cross-trained to know and help with other team members' functions. Additionally, these teams were given performance feedback on an immediate, daily, and weekly basis. Team A reduced mean errors from 7.47 errors per week during baseline to 3.53 errors per week during the intervention phase. Team B experienced a reduction in mean number of weekly errors from a baseline of 11.39 errors per week to 3.82 errors per week during the intervention phase. Team C did not experience significant error rate reduction.

Behavioral Systems rely on valid measurement systems to manage processes and feedback and to deliver contingencies. An examination of measurement system components designed to track customer service quality of furniture delivery drivers revealed the measurement system failed to capture information it was designed to measure. A reason for this failure was an inadequate design, which resulted in sabotage of the measurement system by agents in the organization. The failure of this measurement system led to the ineffective operation of business processes and related systems. For example, a bonus pay system and a disincentive system were disabled due to the faulty measurement system. Suggestions for the development of a valid measurement system are offered.

The current study investigated the effects of task-clarification, and manager verbal and graphic feedback on employee busing times at a pizza restaurant. Using an ABC design, task-clarification was provided in a memo, which described the process, priority, and goal time of busing. The busing time decreased slightly, from an average of 315 seconds during baseline to an average of 284 seconds after the task clarification memo. The majority of this change was accounted for by servers decreasing the time it took them to arrive at the table to begin busing. Subsequent to the employee memo, group feedback was administered in the form of verbal feedback and a weekly graph of average server busing times. This feedback was associated with reductions in busing time to an average 152 seconds. Changes in the feedback phase were caused almost exclusively by reductions in the time it took to clean the table once the server was there. A reversal to near-baseline busing times was observed in a follow-up phase. Prebusing and cross-busing were not associated with shorter busing times.

A foodservice distributor in the southeastern United States implemented a voice assisted selecting tool to reduce selector errors by providing immediate feedback when errors occurred. An AB design with a nonequivalent comparison group was used to examine the effects of the voice technology on 132 selectors whose mispicks and shorts were collected over 6 weeks of baseline and 8 weeks of the intervention phase. Selector errors were reduced from 2.44 errors per 1,000 cases picked to 0.94 errors per 1,000 cases when voice technology was implemented. Further analysis indicated that the immediate feedback provided by voice had a greater impact on employees who were making the most errors during baseline.

Several behaviors in a ski shop were identified as being deficient using Austin's Performance Diagnostic Checklist (2000) and Daniels and Daniels' PIC/NIC Analysis (2004). During a 4-week baseline, 7 cleaning behaviors were monitored and 5 were subsequently targeted in an intervention package using an ABC design. The intervention included: a task clarification session, a posted behavioral checklist, graphic feedback of the group's performance for the previous week, and daily task-specific feedback. Immediately after the checklist was posted, the frequency of employee cleaning behaviors increased 52%. Cleaning behaviors increased an additional 12% after the implementation of daily task-specific feedback. Results suggest the interventions generalized to the 2 cleaning behaviors not mentioned in the task-clarification session.

Under baseline conditions warehouse stockers (n = 23) could earn incentives if their team performed above the team quota of 18 cases stocked per hour. They were also subject to disciplinary action if they failed to regularly meet individual stocking quotas. In spite of these contingencies the stockers failed to receive bonus payments most of the months preceding the intervention. The intervention package included a task analysis in the form of engineered labor standards. Empirically derived time standards were combined to provide engineered standards for all stocking tasks. A specific time duration goal for each task was presented prior to execution of each task. Percent of standard time used to complete each task was then presented immediately upon completion of each task via a handheld Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM) device. Thus, task goals and performance feedback immediately preceded and followed performance of each stocking task. Immediately upon onset of the intervention, employee performance increased and eventually averaged 4.46 cases stocked per hour per person, an increase of 24% over the baseline phase. Performance was maintained for the 10-week duration of the study. Team members received the maximum bonus of $300 per month for 9 consecutive months under the intervention system. Performance levels in a comparison team at another warehouse were unchanged during the entire study. Results were discussed in terms of expanding the role of Organizational Behavior Management professionals and operational and ethical issues associated with EPM technologies.

A field study was conducted in auto-parts alter-market distribution centers where selectors used handheld computers to receive instructions and feedback about their product selection process. A wireless voice-interaction technology was then implemented in a multiple baseline fashion across three departments of a warehouse (N = 14) and was associated with a 17% increase in productivity over the previously implemented handheld scanning technology of the baseline condition and comparison departments that continued to use handheld scanner technology. Selection accuracy was nearly identical for voice (99.55%) and handheld (99.80%) technology. But, both were associated with substantially higher selection accuracy than a paper-based method (96.50%). Accuracy with voice instruction delivery, however, was most vulnerable whenever upstream events (i.e., processes that occur before the selection process such as receiving, replenishment, and inventory control) resulted in the wrong product being in the selection location. The implications and limitations that arise with these technologies are discussed as well as the expanded role of the Organizational Behavior Management professional.

Universal Precautions (UPs), procedures to reduce the likelihood of accidental exposure to blood-borne pathogens, were observed among seven Certified Nurse Anesthetists and one anesthesia technician during intravenous line procedures. After six weeks of base-line measures, nurses participated in training, goal setting, and feedback targeting hand sanitizing practices. Three weeks later immediate needle disposal was targeted. Hand sanitizing behaviors increased from a group baseline percentage of 24% to 65% during the intervention, and 52% during withdrawal. No significant increases in immediate needle disposal were found. Participants disposed of needles immediately 53% of the time during baseline, 58% during the intervention phase, and 45% during withdrawal. Non-targeted UP behaviors also increased as a result of the intervention: Recapping needles with on-hand increased from 45% during baseline to 61% during the intervention phases; removing gloves from inside out increased from 61% to 93%; and wearing gloves when discarding waste increased from 31% to 52%. Auxiliary behaviors such as nurse and patient interactions remained consistently high throughout the study.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate a program designed to improve the work quality of employees at a food distribution warehouse. Participants (n = 23) were responsible for selecting food items to be distributed to restaurants. Selector errors were targeted using an adapted incentive program featuring tiered goals and individualized normative feedback. A pre-existing incentive program, wherein selectors forfeited money for each error, was adapted to allow the selectors the opportunity to earn back their disincentive money upon attainment of weekly goals that were increasingly demanding. The initial goal for the first two weeks was set at 2.0 errors per 1000 cases and every two weeks thereafter the new goal was reduced by 0.1 errors per 1000 cases until the final goal of 1.5 errors per 1000 cases. Weekly graphic feedback included public posting of individual errors rates. The mean errors per 1000 cases for the experimental group decreased 10% from 3.16 during baseline to 2.54 during the intervention. The largest decreases in errors was observed in the mid-level performers (with baseline error rates between 2 and 3.5 errors per 1000 cases). A cost-benefit analysis revealed potential savings of $9,799.50.

The term response generalization has been poorly defined and has, over many years, been a source of controversy for applied researchers who must grapple with results that show changes in behaviors outside of the response class targeted by their intervention. The present discussion seeks to differentiate response generalization from such terms as response covariation and induction. Instead, response generalization is redefined in the context of response classes and concurrent schedules of reinforcement.

This study investigated the effects of a safe driving competition facilitated by publicly-posted individual feedback. The turn-signal use, safety-belt use, and complete intersection stopping of 82 pizza deliverers were observed at two experimental and three control stores, as well as among the civilian population. After baseline observations, pizza deliverers received posted weekly individual feedback on their turn-signal use (at Store A) or complete intersection stops (at Store B). The deliverers' safe driving scores were posted individually on a vertical scale along with their names. Each week the deliverer with the highest average performance was rewarded with a free vehicle-maintenance coupon. Turn-signal use among drivers at Store A (n = 24) increased 22 percentage points from baseline to the intervention phase which was maintained into the withdrawal phase. Complete intersection stopping among drivers at Store B (n = 21) increased 17 percentage points from baseline to the intervention phase and was maintained into the withdrawal phase. Although the winners of the weekly competitions had the greatest increase in performance, non-winners also increased their instances of safe driving during the competition.

Pizza deliverers at two stores received turn-signal policy statements with two paychecks in an AB1B2 multiple baseline design. At Store A turn-signal use rose from a baseline mean of 70% to 78% after the first policy statement and to 84% after the second policy statement. At Store B turn-signal use rose from a baseline mean of 46% to 51% after the first policy statement and to 59% after the second policy statement. Concurrent observations of safety-belt use showed decreases from 78% to 65% at Store A and 74% to 59% at Store B after the first policy statement.

Discusses the pizza deliverers' role as intervention agents for a community safety belt campaign sponsored by their stores. Evaluation on the behavior change of the intervention agents; Profiles of the intervention agents; Procedures in data collection and behavioral observations; Total number of vehicular observations administered.

We placed recycling receptacles in two locations in academic buildings and studied recycling behavior within an ABA multiple baseline design. During baseline, recycling receptacles were placed in a central location. During the intervention, receptacles were moved into classrooms where beverages were primarily consumed. Baseline conditions were then reinstated. The percentage of cans recycled daily increased during intervention and returned to near-baseline levels during withdrawal. The percentage of cans discarded daily in the trash decreased during the intervention and increased to near-baseline levels during withdrawal. Implications of this study include making recycling more convenient in institutional settings.

Safety belt use, turn signal use, and intersection stopping were observed at 3 pizza delivery locations per driver's license plate numbers. After baseline observations, employees at 1 store participated in goal setting targeting complete stops. Employees at the other store were assigned a goal. Over 4 weeks, the group's percentages of complete intersection stopping were posted. Both intervention groups significantly increased their complete intersection stops during the intervention phase. The participative goal-setting group also showed significant increases in turn signal and safety belt use (nontargeted behaviors) concurrent with their increases in intersection stopping (targeted behaviors). Drivers decreased their turn signal and safety belt use concurrent with the assigned goal condition targeting complete stops.

The Safety Triad proposed by Geller (1992) suggests that interventions to increase safety in the community and workplace needs to consider three causal aspects of behavior change. 1) The Person factor considers the past history of an individual as well as specific personality characteristics which may influence responsiveness to an intervention. 2) The Environmental factor considers the manipulation of the environmental antecedents 2lnd consequences of the target behavior. It also includes identifying natural contingencies which may support the behavior after the intervention is withdrawn. 3) The Behavior factor considers the response class in which the target behavior is shaped, and the interrelationships between the target behavior and other behaviors.

A practical intervention program, targeting the safety belt use of pizza deliverers at two stores, increased significantly the use of both safety belts (143% above baseline) and turn signals (25% above baseline). Control subjects (i.e., pizza deliverers at a third no-intervention store and patrons driving to the pizza stores) showed no changes in belt or turn signal use over the course of 7-month study. The intervention program was staggered across two pizza stores and consisted of a group meeting wherein employees discussed the value of safety belts, received feedback regarding their low safety belt use, offered suggestions for increasing their belt use, and made a personal commitment to buckle up by signing buckle-up promise cards. Subsequently, employee-designed buckle-up reminder signs were placed in the pizza stores. By linking license plate numbers to individual driving records, we examined certain aspects of driving history as moderators of pre- and postintervention belt use. Although baseline belt use was significantly lower for drivers with one or more driving demerits or accidents in the previous 5 years, after the intervention these risk groups increased their belt use significantly and at the same rate as drivers with no demerits or accidents. Whereas baseline belt use was similar for younger (under 25) and older (25 or older) drivers, younger drivers were markedly more influenced by the intervention than were older drivers. Individual variation in belt use during baseline, intervention, and follow-up phases indicated that some drivers require more effective and costly intervention programs to motivate their safe driving practices.

This paper addresses issues and research needs in the domain of behavior modification for injury control. Although much of the discussion focuses on traffic safety, the concepts and principles are applicable to all areas of injury control (e.g. on the job and in the home). Field research that has increased safety belt use is reviewed briefly to illustrate a tripartite classification of injury control factors (i.e. environmental, individual, or behavioral variables), and to introduce a heuristic framework for categorizing and evaluating behavior change strategies. A multiple intervention level hierarchy depicts a progressive segmentation of the target population as more effective (and costly) interventions are implemented; and a taxonomy of 24 behavior change techniques includes a scoring system for predicting short and long term effects of intervention programs. It is presumed that more risk-prone individuals require higher-level interventions, which are those that provide specific response information and extrinsic controls, while also eliciting active participant involvement, social support, and perceptions of autonomy. Although extrinsic controls increase the immediate impact of an intervention program, these techniques may jeopardize response maintenance when the program is withdrawn.