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Monowai is an active submarine volcanic centre in the Kermadec Arc, Southwest Pacific Ocean. Multi-beam data acquired during expedition SO225 aboard R/V SONNE in December 2012 indicates that the topography of the main stratocone has evolved significantly since the last survey in June 2011. Bathymetric measurements of the edifice reveal differences of up to 42 m in seafloor depth and indicate a net volume increase of ∼0.037 km3 across the summit area. Explosive volcanism observed onsite during the SO225 mapping campaign could be linked to a 20h-long swarm of unusually coherent T phase arrivals, suggesting that Monowai is a prime source of broadband seismic noise in the Southwest Pacific region during times of activity. Our findings further document the dynamic nature of volcanic processes at Monowai and have implications for future expedition planning.

Monowai is an active submarine volcanic centre in the Kermadec Arc, Southwest Pacific Ocean. Multi-beam data acquired during expedition SO225 aboard R/V SONNE in December 2012 indicates that the topography of the main stratocone has evolved significantly since the last survey in June 2011. Bathymetric measurements of the edifice reveal differences of up to 42 m in seafloor depth and indicate a net volume increase of ∼0.037 km3 across the summit area. Explosive volcanism observed onsite during the SO225 mapping campaign could be linked to a 20h-long swarm of unusually coherent T phase arrivals, suggesting that Monowai is a prime source of broadband seismic noise in the Southwest Pacific region during times of activity. Our findings further document the dynamic nature of volcanic processes at Monowai and have implications for future expedition planning.

Submarine volcanic activity is difficult to detect, because eruptions at depth are strongly attenuated by seawater. With increasing depth the ambient water pressure increases and limits the expansion of gas and steam such that volcanic eruptions tend to be less violent and less explosive with depth. Furthermore, the thermal conductivity and heat capacity of water causes rapid cooling of ejected products and hence erupted magma cools much more quickly than during subaerial eruptions. Therefore, reports on submarine volcanism are restricted to those sites where erupted products – like the presence of pumice rafts, gas bubbling on the sea surface, and local seawater colour changes - reach the sea surface. However, eruptions cause sound waves that travel over far distances through the Sound-Fixing-And-Ranging (SOFAR) channel, so called T-waves. Seismic networks in French Polynesia recorded T-waves since the 1980’s that originated at Monowai Volcano, Kermadec Arc, and were attributed to episodic growth and collapse events. Repeated swath-mapping campaigns conducted between 1998 and 2011 confirm that Monowai volcano is a highly dynamic volcano.

Only little is known on active volcanism in the ocean. As eruptions are attenuated by seawater and fallout does not regularly reach the sea surface, eruption rates and mechanisms are poorly understood. Estimations on the number of active volcanoes across the modern seas range from hundreds to thousands, but only very few active sites are known. Monowai is a submarine volcanic centre in the northern Kermadec Arc, Southwest Pacific Ocean. During May 2011, it erupted over a period of five days, with explosive activity directly linked to the generation of seismoacoustic tertiary waves (‘T-phases’), recorded at three broadband seismic stations in the region. We show, using windowed cross-correlation and time-difference-of-arrival techniques, that T-phases associated with this eruption are detected as far as Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean, where two bottom-moored hydrophone arrays are operated as part of the International Monitoring System (IMS) of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO). We observe a high incidence of T-phase arrivals during the time of the eruption, with the angle of arrival stabilizing at the geodesic azimuth between the IMS arrays and Monowai. T-phases from the volcanic centre must therefore have propagated through the Sound Fixing And Ranging (SOFAR) channel in the South Pacific and South Atlantic Oceans and over a total geodesic range of approximately 15,800 km, one of the longest source-receiver distances of any naturally occurring underwater signal ever observed.

Only little is known on active volcanism in the ocean. As eruptions are attenuated by seawater and fallout does not regularly reach the sea surface, eruption rates and mechanisms are poorly understood. Estimations on the number of active volcanoes across the modern seas range from hundreds to thousands, but only very few active sites are known. Monowai is a submarine volcanic centre in the northern Kermadec Arc, Southwest Pacific Ocean. During May 2011, it erupted over a period of five days, with explosive activity directly linked to the generation of seismoacoustic tertiary waves (‘T-phases’), recorded at three broadband seismic stations in the region. We show, using windowed cross-correlation and time-difference-of-arrival techniques, that T-phases associated with this eruption are detected as far as Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean, where two bottom-moored hydrophone arrays are operated as part of the International Monitoring System (IMS) of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO). We observe a high incidence of T-phase arrivals during the time of the eruption, with the angle of arrival stabilizing at the geodesic azimuth between the IMS arrays and Monowai. T-phases from the volcanic centre must therefore have propagated through the Sound Fixing And Ranging (SOFAR) channel in the South Pacific and South Atlantic Oceans and over a total geodesic range of approximately 15,800 km, one of the longest source-receiver distances of any naturally occurring underwater signal ever observed.

Submarine volcanic activity is difficult to detect, because eruptions at depth are strongly attenuated by seawater. With increasing depth the ambient water pressure increases and limits the expansion of gas and steam such that volcanic eruptions tend to be less violent and less explosive with depth. Furthermore, the thermal conductivity and heat capacity of water causes rapid cooling of ejected products and hence erupted magma cools much more quickly than during subaerial eruptions. Therefore, reports on submarine volcanism are restricted to those sites where erupted products – like the presence of pumice rafts, gas bubbling on the sea surface, and local seawater colour changes - reach the sea surface. However, eruptions cause sound waves that travel over far distances through the Sound-Fixing-And-Ranging (SOFAR) channel, so called T-waves. Seismic networks in French Polynesia recorded T-waves since the 1980’s that originated at Monowai Volcano, Kermadec Arc, and were attributed to episodic growth and collapse events. Repeated swath-mapping campaigns conducted between 1998 and 2011 confirm that Monowai volcano is a highly dynamic volcano.