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Spatial proteomics technologies have revealed an underappreciated link between the location of cells in tissue microenvironments and the underlying biology and clinical features, but there is significant lag in the development of downstream analysis methods and benchmarking tools. Here we present SPIAT (spatial image analysis of tissues), a spatial-platform agnostic toolkit with a suite of spatial analysis algorithms, and spaSim (spatial simulator), a simulator of tissue spatial data. SPIAT includes multiple colocalization, neighborhood and spatial heterogeneity metrics to characterize the spatial patterns of cells. Ten spatial metrics of SPIAT are benchmarked using simulated data generated with spaSim. We show how SPIAT can uncover cancer immune subtypes correlated with prognosis in cancer and characterize cell dysfunction in diabetes. Our results suggest SPIAT and spaSim as useful tools for quantifying spatial patterns, identifying and validating correlates of clinical outcomes and supporting method development.

CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes with a tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cell phenotype are associated with favorable prognosis in patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). However, the relative contribution of CD8+ TRM cells to anti-tumor immunity and immune checkpoint blockade efficacy in breast cancer remains unknown. Here, we show that intratumoral CD8+ T cells in murine mammary tumors transcriptionally resemble those from TNBC patients. Phenotypic and transcriptional studies established two intratumoral sub-populations: one more enriched in markers of terminal exhaustion (TEX-like) and the other with a bona fide resident phenotype (TRM-like). Treatment with anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 therapy resulted in expansion of these intratumoral populations, with the TRM-like subset displaying significantly enhanced cytotoxic capacity. TRM-like CD8+ T cells could also provide local immune protection against tumor rechallenge and a TRM gene signature extracted from tumor-free tissue was significantly associated with improved clinical outcomes in TNBC patients treated with checkpoint inhibitors.

BACKGROUND: Molecular profiling of the tumour immune microenvironment (TIME) has enabled the rational choice of immunotherapies in some adult cancers. In contrast, the TIME of paediatric cancers is relatively unexplored. We speculated that a more refined appreciation of the TIME in childhood cancers, rather than a reliance on commonly used biomarkers such as tumour mutation burden (TMB), neoantigen load and PD-L1 expression, is an essential prerequisite for improved immunotherapies in childhood solid cancers. METHODS: We combined immunohistochemistry (IHC) with RNA sequencing and whole-genome sequencing across a diverse spectrum of high-risk paediatric cancers to develop an alternative, expression-based signature associated with CD8+ T-cell infiltration of the TIME. Furthermore, we explored transcriptional features of immune archetypes and T-cell receptor sequencing diversity, assessed the relationship between CD8+ and CD4+ abundance by IHC and deconvolution predictions and assessed the common adult biomarkers such as neoantigen load and TMB. RESULTS: A novel 15-gene immune signature, Immune Paediatric Signature Score (IPASS), was identified. Using this signature, we estimate up to 31% of high-risk cancers harbour infiltrating T-cells. In addition, we showed that PD-L1 protein expression is poorly correlated with PD-L1 RNA expression and TMB and neoantigen load are not predictive of T-cell infiltration in paediatrics. Furthermore, deconvolution algorithms are only weakly correlated with IHC measurements of T-cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our data provides new insights into the variable immune-suppressive mechanisms dampening responses in paediatric solid cancers. Effective immune-based interventions in high-risk paediatric cancer will require individualised analysis of the TIME.

Radiotherapy (RT) is the standard-of-care treatment for more than half of cancer patients with localized tumors and is also used as palliative care to facilitate symptom relief in metastatic cancers. In addition, RT can alter the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) of solid tumors to augment the anti-tumor immune response of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB). The rationale of this combination therapy can also be extended to other forms of immunotherapy, such as chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapy. Similar to ICB, the efficacy of CAR-T therapy is also significantly impacted by the immunosuppressive TME, leading to compromised T cell function and/or insufficient T cell infiltration. In this review, we will discuss some of the key barriers to the activity of CAR-T cells in the immunosuppressive TME and focus on how RT can be used to eliminate or bypass these barriers. We will present the challenges to achieving success with this therapeutic partnership. Looking forward, we will also provide strategies currently being investigated to ensure the success of this combination strategy in the clinic.

BACKGROUND: Vaginal melanoma (VM) is a rare cancer and has a poor response to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB). CD8+Tissue Resident Memory (TRM) T cells proliferate in response to ICB and correlate with longer survival in metastatic cutaneous melanoma. However, their capacity to respond to VM and their neoantigens is not known. METHODS: Using longitudinal samples, we explored the evolution of VM mutations by whole-exome sequencing and RNAseq, we also defined the immune context using multiplex immunohistochemistry and nanostring pan cancer immune profile. Then using fresh single cell suspensions of the metastatic samples, we explored VM T cells via mass cytometry and single cell RNAseq and T cell receptor sequencing (TCRseq). Finally, we investigated TRM, pre-TRM and exhausted T cell function against melanoma neo-antigens and melanoma differentiation antigens in vitro. RESULTS: Primary VM was non-inflamed and devoid of CD8+ TRM cells. In contrast, both metastases showed proliferating CD8+ TRM were clustered at the tumor margin, with increased numbers in the second ICB-refractory metastasis. The first metastasis showed dense infiltration of CD8+ T cells, the second showed immune exclusion with loss of melanoma cell Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-I expression associated with downregulation of antigen presentation pathway gene expression. CD8+ TRM from both metastases responded to autologous melanoma cells more robustly than all other CD8+ T cell subsets. In addition, CD8+ TRM shared TCR clones across metastases, suggesting a response to common antigens, which was supported by recognition of the same neoantigen by expanded tumor infiltrating lymphocytes. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we identified TRM clusters in VM metastases from a patient, but not primary disease. We showed TRM location at the tumor margin, and their superior functional response to autologous tumor cells, predicted neoantigens and melanoma differentiation antigens. These CD8+ TRM exhibited the

BACKGROUND: Patients with BRAF-mutant and wild-type melanoma have different response rates to immune checkpoint blockade therapy. However, the reasons for this remain unknown. To address this issue, we investigated the precise immune composition resulting from BRAF mutation in treatment-naive melanoma to determine whether this may be a driver for different response to immunotherapy. METHODS: In this study, we characterized the treatment-naive immune context in patients with BRAF-mutant and BRAF wild-type (BRAF-wt) melanoma using data from single-cell RNA sequencing, bulk RNA sequencing, flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry (IHC). RESULTS: In single-cell data, BRAF-mutant melanoma displayed a significantly reduced infiltration of CD8+ T cells and macrophages but also increased B cells, natural killer (NK) cells and NKT cells. We then validated this finding using bulk RNA-seq data from the skin cutaneous melanoma cohort in The Cancer Genome Atlas and deconvoluted the data using seven different algorithms. Interestingly, BRAF-mutant tumors had more CD4+ T cells than BRAF-wt samples in both primary and metastatic cohorts. In the metastatic cohort, BRAF-mutant melanoma demonstrated more B cells but less CD8+ T cell infiltration when compared with BRAF-wt samples. In addition, we further investigated the immune cell infiltrate using flow cytometry and multiplex IHC techniques. We confirmed that BRAF-mutant melanoma metastases were enriched for CD4+ T cells and B cells and had a co-existing decrease in CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, we then identified B cells were associated with a trend for improved survival (p=0.078) in the BRAF-mutant samples and Th2 cells were associated with prolonged survival in the BRAF-wt samples. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, treatment-naive BRAF-mutant melanoma has a distinct immune context compared with BRAF-wt melanoma, with significantly decreased CD8+ T cells and increased B cells and CD4+ T cells in the tumor microenvironment. These findings in

Although the impressive clinical responses seen with modern cancer immunotherapy are currently limited to a subset of patients, the underlying paradigm shift has resulted in now hardly a segment in oncology that has not been touched by the immuno-oncology revolution. A growing body of data indicates that radiation therapy (RT) can modulate the tumour immune microenvironment and complement cancer immunotherapy via non-overlapping mechanisms to reinvigorate immunity against cancer. Thus, increasingly RT is viewed as a highly unique partner for immunotherapy across the spectrum of cancer settings, as radiobiology and cancer immunology foreseeably become more intertwined. Considering these developments, this review summarises the key concepts and terminology in immunology for the radiation oncologist, with a focus on the cancer setting and with reference to important recent advances. These concepts will provide a starting point for understanding the strategies that underlie current and emerging immunotherapy trials, as well as the indirect effects of RT by which immune responses against cancer are shaped.

BACKGROUND: In esophageal cancer (EC), there is a paucity of knowledge regarding the interplay between the tumor immune microenvironment and response to neoadjuvant treatment and, therefore, which factors may influence outcomes. Thus, our goal was to investigate the changes in the immune microenvironment with neoadjuvant treatment in EC by assessing the expression of immune related genes and their association with prognosis. METHODS: We examined the transcriptome of paired pre- and post-neoadjuvant treated EC specimens. Based on these findings, we validated the presence of tumor-infiltrating neutrophils using CD15+ immunohistochemistry in a discovery cohort of patients with residual pathologic disease. We developed a nomogram as a predictor of progression-free survival (PFS) incorporating the variables CD15+ cell count, tumor regression grade, and tumor grade. RESULTS: After neoadjuvant treatment, there was an increase in genes related to myeloid cell differentiation and a poor prognosis associated with high neutrophil (CD15+) counts. Our nomogram incorporating CD15+ cell count was predictive of PFS with a C-index of 0.80 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.68-0.9) and a concordance probability estimate (CPE) of 0.77 (95% CI 0.69-0.86), which indicates high prognostic ability. The C-index and CPE of the validation cohort were 0.81 (95% CI 0.69-0.91) and 0.78 (95% CI 0.7-0.86), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our nomogram incorporating CD15+ cell count can potentially be used to identify patients at high risk of recurrent disease and thus stratify patients who will benefit most from adjuvant treatment.

Brain tumours are the most common solid tumour in children and the leading cause of cancer related death in children. Current treatments include surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The need for aggressive treatment means many survivors are left with permanent severe disability, physical, intellectual and social. Recent progress in immunotherapy, including genetically engineered T cells with chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) for treating cancer, may provide new avenues to improved outcomes for patients with paediatric brain cancer. In this review we discuss advances in CAR T cell immunotherapy, the major CAR T cell targets that are in clinical and pre-clinical development with a focus on paediatric brain tumours, the paediatric brain tumour microenvironment and strategies used to improve CAR T cell therapy for paediatric tumours.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are essential to maintain tissue homeostasis. In cancer, ILC2s can harbor both pro-tumorigenic and anti-tumorigenic functions, but we know little about their underlying mechanisms or whether they could be clinically relevant or targeted to improve patient outcomes. Here, we found that high ILC2 infiltration in human melanoma was associated with a good clinical prognosis. ILC2s are critical producers of the cytokine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, which coordinates the recruitment and activation of eosinophils to enhance antitumor responses. Tumor-infiltrating ILC2s expressed programmed cell death protein-1, which limited their intratumoral accumulation, proliferation and antitumor effector functions. This inhibition could be overcome in vivo by combining interleukin-33-driven ILC2 activation with programmed cell death protein-1 blockade to significantly increase antitumor responses. Together, our results identified ILC2s as a critical immune cell type involved in melanoma immunity and revealed a potential synergistic approach to harness ILC2 function for antitumor immunotherapies.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have significantly improved overall survival (OS) in metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (m-NSCLC). However, not all patients with m-NSCLC benefit from ICIs, and resistance to ICIs is an emerging challenge. The tumour microenvironment (TME) is immunosuppressive, and provides a myriad of mechanisms to facilitate escape of cancer cells from immune surveillance. The TME may also dampen the response to ICIs by inhibiting T cell effector responses. The poor prognosis of m-NSCLC has led to investigation of ICIs combined with other treatments with the intention of modulating the TME and sensitizing tumours to the effects of ICIs. Stereotactic ablative radiotherapy (SABR) in combination with ICIs is an area of intense interest. SABR is thought to evoke a pro-immunogenic response in the TME, with the capacity to turn a "cold", unresponsive tumour to "hot" and receptive to ICI. In addition to improved local response, SABR is postulated to produce a heightened systemic immune response when compared to conventional radiotherapy (RT). Preclinical studies have demonstrated a synergistic effect of SABR + ICIs, and clinical studies in m-NSCLC showed safety and promising efficacy compared to systemic therapies alone. To optimize ICI + SABR, ICI choice, combinations, dosing and length of treatment, as well as sequencing of ICI + SABR all require further investigation. Appropriate sequencing may depend on the ICI(s) being utilized, with differing sites of metastases possibly eliciting differing immune responses. Single versus multisite radiation is controversial, whilst effects of irradiated tumour volume and nodal irradiation are increasingly recognized. Taken together, there is strong preclinical and biological rationale, with emerging clinical evidence, supporting the strategy of combining SABR + ICIs in m-NSCLC.

In adult cancer, immune signatures such as the T cell-inflamed gene expression profile (GEP) have been developed to predict which patients are likely to respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) beyond high tumor mutation burden (TMB) and PD-L1 expression. The GEP infers T cell infiltration and activation in the tumor microenvironment (TME) from transcriptomic data. However, it is not known whether tools such as GEP are applicable in pediatric cancer, as the TME in childhood cancers is largely unexplored and response to ICIs are rare. We have undertaken an integrated analysis of the pediatric TME using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Our goal is to identify patients with T cell-inflamed or “hot” tumors who may benefit from ICIs. Through Australia's ZERO childhood cancer precision medicine program we performed RNA-seq on 347 high-risk pediatric cancers (estimated <30% chance of survival) and performed IHC for CD4, CD8, CD45 and PD-L1 on 112 matching samples. Using both informatic assessments and IHC as independent measures of immune infiltration, we mapped the immune landscape of the TME across a broad range of high-risk pediatric cancers. As RNA-seq is increasingly used in the analysis of patient tumors, we investigated numerous molecular correlates of immune infiltration, tailored specifically to pediatric patients. RNA-seq was used to generate the GEP and map expression profiles of immune checkpoint genes, and deconvolution algorithms were used to extract the immune cell composition for every tumor. The correlation analysis between IHC, deconvolution of cell mixture composition and GEP were assessed, including PD-L1 protein and mRNA expression. We observed significant correlation between PD-L1 protein and mRNA expression and a weak correlation of CD8+ T cells with GEP. Deconvoluted TME estimates were most tightly correlated with the presence of T cell infiltrates (CD4 and CD8) with IHC. TMB and tumor purity estimates w

BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer is caused by genomic aberrations in normal epithelial cells, however clinical translation of findings from analyses of cancer cells alone has been very limited. A deeper understanding of the tumour microenvironment is needed to identify the key drivers of disease progression and reveal novel therapeutic opportunities. RESULTS: In this study, the experimental enrichment of selected cell-types, the development of a Bayesian inference model for continuous differential transcript abundance, and multiplex immunohistochemistry permitted us to define the transcriptional landscape of the prostate cancer microenvironment along the disease progression axis. An important role of monocytes and macrophages in prostate cancer progression and disease recurrence was uncovered, supported by both transcriptional landscape findings and by differential tissue composition analyses. These findings were corroborated and validated by spatial analyses at the single-cell level using multiplex immunohistochemistry. CONCLUSIONS: This study advances our knowledge concerning the role of monocyte-derived recruitment in primary prostate cancer, and supports their key role in disease progression, patient survival and prostate microenvironment immune modulation.

Richter syndrome (RS), an aggressive lymphoma occurring in the context of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma, is associated with poor prognosis when treated with conventional immunochemotherapy, therefore, improved treatments are required. Immune checkpoint blockade has shown efficacy in some B-cell malignancies and modest responses in early clinical trials for RS. We investigated the immune checkpoint profile of RS as a basis to inform rational therapeutic investigations in RS. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded biopsies of RS (n = 19), de novo diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL; n = 58), transformed indolent lymphomas (follicular [tFL], n = 16; marginal zone [tMZL], n = 24) and non-transformed small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL; n = 15) underwent gene expression profiling using the NanoString Human Immunology panel. Copy number assessment was performed using next-generation sequencing. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) for LAG3 and PD-1 was performed. LAG3 gene expression was higher in RS compared to DLBCL (P = 0·0002, log2FC 1·96), tFL (P < 0·0001, log2FC 2·61), tMZL (P = 0·0004, log2FC 1·79) and SLL (P = 0·0057, log2FC 1·45). LAG3 gene expression correlated with the gene expression of human leukocyte antigen Class I and II, and related immune genes and immune checkpoints. IHC revealed LAG3 protein expression on both malignant RS cells and tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes. Our findings support the investigation of LAG3 inhibition to enhance anti-tumour responses in RS.

Despite aggressive surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, survival of children and adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with sarcoma has not improved significantly in the past four decades. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are an exciting type of immunotherapy that offer new opportunities for the treatment of paediatric and AYA sarcomas. However, to date, most children do not derive a benefit from this type of treatment as a monotherapy. The immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment is a major barrier limiting their efficacy. Combinations of ICIs, such as anti-PD-1 therapy, with targeted molecular therapies that have immunomodulatory properties may be the key to breaking through immunosuppressive barriers and improving patient outcomes. Preclinical studies have indicated that several receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (RTKi) can alter the tumour microenvironment and boost the efficacy of anti-PD-1 therapy. A number of these combinations have entered phase-1/2 clinical trials, mostly in adults, and in most instances have shown efficacy with manageable side-effects. In this review, we discuss the status of ICI therapy in paediatric and AYA sarcomas and the rationale for co-treatment with RTKis. We highlight new opportunities for the integration of ICI therapy with RTK inhibitors, to improve outcomes for children with sarcoma.

This study explored the novel immune checkpoint poliovirus receptor-related immunoglobulin domain-containing (PVRIG) in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). We showed that AML patient blasts consistently expressed the PVRIG ligand (poliovirus receptor-related 2, PVRL2). Furthermore, PVRIG blockade significantly enhanced NK cell killing of PVRL2+, poliovirus receptor (PVR)lo AML cell lines, and significantly increased NK cell activation and degranulation in the context of patient primary AML blasts. However, in AML patient bone marrow, NK cell PVRIG expression levels were not increased. To understand how PVRIG blockade might potentially be exploited therapeutically, we investigated the biology of PVRIG and revealed that NK cell activation resulted in reduced PVRIG expression on the cell surface. This occurred whether NK cells were activated by tumour cell recognition, cytokines (IL-2 and IL-12) or activating receptor stimulation (CD16 and NKp46). PVRIG was present at higher levels in the cytoplasm than on the cell surface, particularly on CD56bright NK cells, which further increased cytoplasmic PVRIG levels following IL-2 and IL-12 activation. PVRIG was continually transported to the cell surface via the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi in both unstimulated and activated NK cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that anti- PVRIG blocking antibody functions by binding to surface-bound PVRIG, which undergoes rapid turnover in both unstimulated and activated NK cells. We conclude that the PVRIGPVRL2 immune checkpoint axis can feasibly be targeted with PVRIG blocking antibody for NK-mediated immunotherapy of PVRL2+ AML.

Sarcomas are a diverse group of bone and soft tissue tumors that account for over 10% of childhood cancers. Outcomes are particularly poor for children with refractory, relapsed, or metastatic disease. Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR T) cells are an exciting form of adoptive cell therapy that potentially offers new hope for these children. In early trials, promising outcomes have been achieved in some pediatric patients with sarcoma. However, many children do not derive benefit despite significant expression of the targeted tumor antigen. The success of CAR T cell therapy in sarcomas and other solid tumors is limited by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). In this review, we provide an update of the CAR T cell therapies that are currently being tested in pediatric sarcoma clinical trials, including those targeting tumors that express HER2, NY-ESO, GD2, EGFR, GPC3, B7-H3, and MAGE-A4. We also outline promising new CAR T cells that are in pre-clinical development. Finally, we discuss strategies that are being used to overcome tumor-mediated immunosuppression in solid tumors; these strategies have the potential to improve clinical outcomes of CAR T cell therapy for children with sarcoma.

Background: Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies have demonstrated promising, though limited, efficacy against melanoma. Methods: We designed a model system to explore the efficacy of dual specific T cells derived from melanoma patient TILs by transduction with a Her2-specific CAR. Results: Metastatic melanoma cells in our biobank constitutively expressed Her2 antigen. CAR-TIL produced greater amounts of IFN compared with parental TIL, when co-cultured with Her2 expressing tumor lines, including autologous melanoma tumor lines, although no consistent increase in cytotoxicity by TIL was afforded by expression of a CAR. Results of an in vivo study in NSG mice demonstrated tumor shrinkage when CAR-TILs were used in an adoptive cell therapy protocol. Conclusion: Potential limitations of transduced TIL in our study included limited proliferative potential and a terminally differentiated phenotype, which would need addressing in further work before consideration of clinical translation.

Not available.

BACKGROUND: Melanoma brain metastases (MBMs) are a challenging clinical problem with high morbidity and mortality. Although first-line dabrafenib-trametinib and ipilimumab-nivolumab have similar intracranial response rates (50%-55%), central nervous system (CNS) resistance to BRAF-MEK inhibitors (BRAF-MEKi) usually occurs around 6 months, and durable responses are only seen with combination immunotherapy. We sought to investigate the utility of ipilimumab-nivolumab after MBM progression on BRAF-MEKi and identify mechanisms of resistance. METHODS: Patients who received first-line ipilimumab-nivolumab for MBMs or second/third line ipilimumab-nivolumab for intracranial metastases with BRAFV600 mutations with prior progression on BRAF-MEKi and MRI brain staging from March 1, 2015 to June 30, 2018 were included. Modified intracranial RECIST was used to assess response. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples of BRAFV600 mutant MBMs that were naïve to systemic treatment (n=18) or excised after progression on BRAF-MEKi (n=14) underwent whole transcriptome sequencing. Comparative analyses of MBMs naïve to systemic treatment versus BRAF-MEKi progression were performed. RESULTS: Twenty-five and 30 patients who received first and second/third line ipilimumab-nivolumab, were included respectively. Median sum of MBM diameters was 13 and 20.5 mm for the first and second/third line ipilimumab-nivolumab groups, respectively. Intracranial response rate was 75.0% (12/16), and median progression-free survival (PFS) was 41.6 months for first-line ipilimumab-nivolumab. Efficacy of second/third line ipilimumab-nivolumab after BRAF-MEKi progression was poor with an intracranial response rate of 4.8% (1/21) and median PFS of 1.3 months. Given the poor activity of ipilimumab-nivolumab after BRAF-MEKi MBM progression, we performed whole transcriptome sequencing to identify mechanisms of drug resistance. We identified a set of 178 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between naïve and MBMs

PURPOSE: We examined how radiation dose per fraction (DPF) and total dose, as represented by biological effective dose (BED), can independently and differentially affect the immunomodulatory capacity of radiation therapy (RT). METHODS AND MATERIALS: AT3-OVA mammary and MC38 colorectal tumors in C57BL/6 mice were irradiated with rationally selected dose-fractionation schedules, alone or with immune-modulating or -depleting agents. Tumor growth was monitored as a readout of therapeutic response. Flow cytometry and RNA sequencing of mouse tumors and analysis of transcriptomic data sets from irradiated human cancers were used to examine the immunomodulatory effects of the different radiation schedules. RESULTS: In AT3-OVA tumors, radiation DPF rather than BED determined the ability of RT to evoke local antitumor CD8+ T cell responses and synergize with anti-PD-1 therapy. Natural killer cell-mediated control of irradiated tumors was more sensitive to radiation BED. Radiation-induced regulatory T cell (Treg) responses, which were detected in both mouse and human tumors, were a major factor underlying the differential activation of adaptive immunity by radiation DPF and the activity of natural killer cells during the early phase of response to RT. Targeted inhibition of Treg responses within irradiated tumors rescued and enhanced local tumor control by RT and permitted the generation of abscopal and immunologic memory responses, irrespective of radiation schedule. MC38 tumors did not support the induction of an amplified Treg response to RT and were highly vulnerable to its immunoadjuvant effects. CONCLUSIONS: Local radiation-induced Treg responses are influenced by radiation schedule and tumor type and are a critical determinant of the immunoadjuvant potential of RT and its ability to synergize with T cell-targeted immunotherapy.

Immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs) are effective treatments for patients with multiple myeloma. IMiDs have pleotropic effects including targeting the myeloma cells directly, and improving the anti-myeloma immune response. In the absence of myeloma cells, lenalidomide and pomalidomide induce CD4+ T cell secretion of IL-2 and indirect activation of Natural Killer (NK) cells. In the context of T cell receptor ligation, IMiDs enhance T cell proliferation, cytokine release and Th1 responses, both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, combination treatment of IMiDs and myeloma-targeting monoclonal antibodies eg. daratumumab (anti-CD38) and elotuzumab (anti-SLAMF7), checkpoint inhibitors, or bispecific T cell engagers showed synergistic effects, mainly via enhanced T and NK cell dependent cellular toxicity and T cell proliferation. Conversely, the corticosteroid dexamethasone can impair the immune modulatory effects of IMiDs, indicating that careful choice of myeloma drugs in combination with IMiDs is key for the best anti-myeloma therapeutic efficacy. This review presents an overview of the role for T cells in the overall anti-myeloma effects of immunomodulatory drugs.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are essential to maintain tissue homeostasis. In cancer, ILC2s can harbor both pro-tumorigenic and anti-tumorigenic functions, but we know little about their underlying mechanisms or whether they could be clinically relevant or targeted to improve patient outcomes. Here, we found that high ILC2 infiltration in human melanoma was associated with a good clinical prognosis. ILC2s are critical producers of the cytokine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, which coordinates the recruitment and activation of eosinophils to enhance antitumor responses. Tumor-infiltrating ILC2s expressed programmed cell death protein-1, which limited their intratumoral accumulation, proliferation and antitumor effector functions. This inhibition could be overcome in vivo by combining interleukin-33-driven ILC2 activation with programmed cell death protein-1 blockade to significantly increase antitumor responses. Together, our results identified ILC2s as a critical immune cell type involved in melanoma immunity and revealed a potential synergistic approach to harness ILC2 function for antitumor immunotherapies.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are essential to maintain tissue homeostasis. In cancer, ILC2s can harbor both pro-tumorigenic and anti-tumorigenic functions, but we know little about their underlying mechanisms or whether they could be clinically relevant or targeted to improve patient outcomes. Here, we found that high ILC2 infiltration in human melanoma was associated with a good clinical prognosis. ILC2s are critical producers of the cytokine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, which coordinates the recruitment and activation of eosinophils to enhance antitumor responses. Tumor-infiltrating ILC2s expressed programmed cell death protein-1, which limited their intratumoral accumulation, proliferation and antitumor effector functions. This inhibition could be overcome in vivo by combining interleukin-33-driven ILC2 activation with programmed cell death protein-1 blockade to significantly increase antitumor responses. Together, our results identified ILC2s as a critical immune cell type involved in melanoma immunity and revealed a potential synergistic approach to harness ILC2 function for antitumor immunotherapies.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) induce a durable response in a wide range of tumor types, but only a minority of patients outside these 'responsive' tumor types respond, with some totally resistant. The primary predictor of intrinsic immune resistance to ICIs is the complete or near-complete absence of lymphocytes from the tumor, so-called immunologically cold tumors. Here, we propose two broad approaches to convert 'cold' tumors into 'hot' tumors. The first is to induce immunogenic tumor cell death, through the use of oncolytic viruses or bacteria, conventional cancer therapies (e.g. chemotherapy or radiation therapy) or small molecule drugs. The second approach is to target the tumor microenvironment, and covers diverse options such as depleting immune suppressive cells; inhibiting transforming growth factor-beta; remodelling the tumor vasculature or hypoxic environment; strengthening the infiltration and activation of antigen-presenting cells and/or effector T cells in the tumor microenvironment with immune modulators; and enhancing immunogenicity through personalised cancer vaccines. Strategies that successfully modify cold tumors to overcome their resistance to ICIs represent mechanistically driven approaches that will ultimately result in rational combination therapies to extend the clinical benefits of immunotherapy to a broader cancer cohort.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the drivers of recurrence in aggressive prostate cancer requires detailed molecular and genomic understanding in order to aid therapeutic interventions. We provide here a case report of histological, transcriptional, proteomic, immunological, and genomic features in a longitudinal study of multiple biopsies from diagnosis, through treatment, and subsequent recurrence. CASE PRESENTATION: Here we present a case study of a male in 70 s with high-grade clinically-localised acinar adenocarcinoma treated with definitive hormone therapy and radiotherapy. The patient progressed rapidly with rising PSA and succumbed without metastasis 52 months after diagnosis. We identified the expression of canonical histological markers of neuroendocrine PC (NEPC) including synaptophysin, neuron-specific enolase and thyroid transcription factor 1, as well as intact AR expression, in the recurrent disease only. The resistant disease was also marked by an extremely low immune infiltrate, extensive genomic chromosomal aberrations, and overactivity in molecular hallmarks of NEPC disease including Aurora kinase and E2F, as well as novel alterations in the cMYB pathway. We also observed that responses to both primary treatments (high dose-rate brachytherapy and androgen deprivation therapies) were consistent with known optimal responses-ruling out treatment inefficacy as a factor in relapse. CONCLUSIONS: These data provide novel insights into a case of locally recurrent aggressive prostate cancer harbouring NEPC pathology, in the absence of detected metastasis.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy has been highly successful in hematological malignancies leading to their US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. However, the efficacy of CAR T cells in solid tumors is limited by tumor-induced immunosuppression, leading to the development of combination approaches, such as adjuvant programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) blockade. Current FDA-approved methods for generating CAR T cells utilize either anti-CD3 and interleukin (IL)-2 or anti-CD3/CD28 beads, which can generate a T cell product with an effector/exhausted phenotype. Whereas different cytokine preconditioning milieu, such as IL-7/IL-15, have been shown to promote T cell engraftment, the impact of this approach on CAR T cell responses to adjuvant immune-checkpoint blockade has not been assessed. In the current study, we reveal that the preconditioning of CAR T cells with IL-7/IL-15 increased CAR T cell responses to anti-PD-1 adjuvant therapy. This was associated with the emergence of an intratumoral CD8+CD62L+TCF7+IRF4- population that was highly responsive to anti-PD-1 therapy and mediated the vast majority of transcriptional and epigenetic changes in vivo following PD-1 blockade. Our data indicate that preservation of CAR T cells in a TCF7+ phenotype is crucial for their responsiveness to adjuvant immunotherapy approaches and should be a key consideration when designing clinical protocols.

OBJECTIVE: The immune system can halt cancer progression by suppressing outgrowth of clinically occult micrometastases in a state of cancer-immune equilibrium. Cutaneous melanoma provides a unique opportunity to study the immune contexture of such lesions, as miniscule skin metastases are accessible to clinical inspection and diagnostic biopsy. METHODS: Here, we analysed by multiplex immunofluorescence microscopy samples from a melanoma patient presenting with an overt and an occult in-transit metastasis (ITM), the latter of which appeared as a small erythematous papule. RESULTS: Microarchitecture and immune composition in the two lesions were vastly different. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells accumulated around the margin of the overt SOX10+ Melan A+ ITM but were largely excluded from the tumor centre. By contrast, the occult micrometastasis contained only few SOX10+ Melan A- melanoma cells which were scattered within a dense infiltrate of T cells, including a prominent population of CD103+ CD8+ T cells resembling tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells. Notably, almost every single melanoma cell in the micrometastasis was in close proximity to these TRM-like cells. CONCLUSION: Such results support the emerging concept that CD103+ CD8+ TRM cells are key mediators of cancer surveillance and imply an important function of these cells in controlling clinically occult micrometastases in humans.

Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells are effective serial killers with a faster off-rate from dying tumor cells than CAR-T cells binding target cells through their T cell receptor (TCR). Here we explored the functional consequences of CAR-mediated signaling using a dual-specific CAR-T cell, where the same cell was triggered via TCR (tcrCTL) or CAR (carCTL). The carCTL immune synapse lacked distinct LFA-1 adhesion rings and was less reliant on LFA to form stable conjugates with target cells. carCTL receptors associated with the synapse were found to be disrupted and formed a convoluted multifocal pattern of Lck microclusters. Both proximal and distal receptor signaling pathways were induced more rapidly and subsequently decreased more rapidly in carCTL than in tcrCTL. The functional consequence of this rapid signaling in carCTL cells included faster lytic granule recruitment to the immune synapse, correlating with faster detachment of the CTL from the target cell. This study provides a mechanism for how CAR-T cells can debulk large tumor burden quickly and may contribute to further refinement of CAR design for enhancing the quality of signaling and programming of the T cell.

INTRODUCTION: The development of radioresistance in prostate cancer (PCa) is an important clinical issue and is still largely uninformed by personalized molecular characteristics. The aim of this study was to establish a platform that describes the early oncoproteomic response of human prostate tissue to radiation therapy (RT) using a prospective human tissue cohort. METHODS: Fresh and fixed transperineal biopsies from eight men with clinically localized tumors were taken prior to and 14 days following a single fraction of high-dose-rate brachytherapy. Quantitative protein analysis was achieved using an optimized protein extraction pipeline and subsequent data-independent acquisition mass spectroscopy (DIA-MS). Ontology analyses were used to identify enriched functional pathways, with the candidates further interrogated in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue biopsies from five additional patients. RESULTS: We obtained a mean coverage of 5660 proteins from fresh tissue biopsies; with the principal post-radiation change observed being an increase in levels amongst a total of 49 proteins exhibiting abundance changes. Many of these changes in abundance varied between patients and, typically to prostate cancer tissue, exhibited a high level of heterogeneity. Ontological analysis revealed the enrichment of the protein activation cascades of three immunological pathways: humoral immune response, leukocyte mediated immunity and complement activation. These were predominantly associated with the extracellular space. We validated significant expression differences in between 20% and 61% of these candidates using the separate fixed-tissue cohort and established their feasibility as an experimental tissue resource by acquiring quantitative data for a mean of 5152 proteins per patient. DISCUSSION: In this prospective study, we have established a sensitive and reliable oncoproteomic pipeline for the analysis of both fresh and formalin-fixed human PCa tissue. We identified mul

A prospective study explored the heterogeneous nature of metastatic melanoma using Multiplex immunohistochemistry (IHC) and flow cytometry (FACS). Multiplex IHC data quantitated immune subset number present intra-tumoral (IT) vs the tumor stroma, plus distance of immune subsets from the tumor margin (TM). In addition, mIHC showed a close association between the presence of IT CD8+ T cells and PDL1 expression in melanoma, which was more prevalent on macrophages than on melanoma cells. In contrast, FACS provided more detailed information regarding the T cell subset differentiation, their activation status and expression of immune checkpoint molecules. Interestingly, mIHC detected significantly higher Treg numbers than FACS and showed preferential CD4+ T cell distribution in the tumor stroma. Based on the mIHC and FACS data, we provide a model which defines metastatic melanoma immune context into four categories using the presence or absence of PDL1+ melanoma cells and/or macrophages, and their location within the tumor or on the periphery, combined with the presence or absence of IT CD8+ T cells. This model interprets melanoma immune context as a spectrum of tumor escape from immune control, and provides a snapshot upon which interpretation of checkpoint blockade inhibitor (CBI) therapy responses can be built.

Cancer cells exploit the expression of the programmed death-1 (PD-1) ligand 1 (PD-L1) to subvert T-cell-mediated immunosurveillance. The success of therapies that disrupt PD-L1-mediated tumour tolerance has highlighted the need to understand the molecular regulation of PD-L1 expression. Here we identify the uncharacterized protein CMTM6 as a critical regulator of PD-L1 in a broad range of cancer cells, by using a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screen. CMTM6 is a ubiquitously expressed protein that binds PD-L1 and maintains its cell surface expression. CMTM6 is not required for PD-L1 maturation but co-localizes with PD-L1 at the plasma membrane and in recycling endosomes, where it prevents PD-L1 from being targeted for lysosome-mediated degradation. Using a quantitative approach to profile the entire plasma membrane proteome, we find that CMTM6 displays specificity for PD-L1. Notably, CMTM6 depletion decreases PD-L1 without compromising cell surface expression of MHC class I. CMTM6 depletion, via the reduction of PD-L1, significantly alleviates the suppression of tumour-specific T cell activity in vitro and in vivo. These findings provide insights into the biology of PD-L1 regulation, identify a previously unrecognized master regulator of this critical immune checkpoint and highlight a potential therapeutic target to overcome immune evasion by tumour cells.

Adoptive therapy with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells shows great promise clinically. However, there are important aspects of CAR-T-cell biology that have not been explored, particularly with respect to the kinetics of activation, immune synapse formation, and tumor cell killing. Moreover, the effects of signaling via the endogenous T-cell receptor (TCR) or CAR on killing kinetics are unclear. To address these issues, we developed a novel transgenic mouse (designated CAR.OT-I), in which CD8(+) T cells coexpressed the clonogenic OT-I TCR, recognizing the H-2K(b)-presented ovalbumin peptide SIINFEKL, and an scFv specific for human HER2. Primed CAR.OT-I T cells were mixed with SIINFEKL-pulsed or HER2-expressing tumor cells and visualized in real-time using time-lapse microscopy. We found that engagement via CAR or TCR did not affect cell death kinetics, except that the time from degranulation to CAR-T-cell detachment was faster when CAR was engaged. We showed, for the first time, that individual CAR.OT-I cells can kill multiple tumor cells ("serial killing"), irrespective of the mode of recognition. At low effector:target ratios, the tumor cell killing rate was similar via TCR or CAR ligation over the first 20 hours of coincubation. However, from 20 to 50 hours, tumor cell death mediated through CAR became attenuated due to CAR downregulation throughout the time course. Our study provides important insights into CAR-T-tumor cell interactions, with implications for single- or dual receptor-focused T-cell therapy.