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Shallow landslides can be mitigated through the hydro-mechanical reinforcement provided by vegetation. Several critical parameters, such as plant spacing and plant age, play a significant role in influencing bioengineered slope stability facilitated by vegetation. However, the coupling of these effects on the stability of vegetated slope has been ignored. The objective of this study is to investigate the hydro-mechanical impact of vegetation growth and spacing on the stability of bioengineered slopes based on the predictions of a calibrated numerical model against field measurements. The impact of vegetation is investigated, with specific attention given to different plant spacing and growth stages, utilizing Schefflera arboricola. In the context of rainfall, it was observed that younger vegetation demonstrated more effective matric suction retention and recovery up to 25 kPa compared to the aged vegetation. Vegetation was revealed to substantially enhance the factor of safety up to 0.3 compared to the bare slope. Plant growth and reducing plant spacing increased the impact of root systems on both hydraulic and mechanical stability, primarily attributable to the influence of root cohesion rather than transpiration rates. The results revealed that the mechanical contribution to the factor of safety enhancement was raised from one-third to two-thirds because of the vegetation-induced cohesion within the growing rooted zone. © 2024 The Author(s)

A field experiment was carried out to investigate the impact of different plant spacings and tuber sizes on the growth and yield of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.). Four tuber sizes (10-20 g, 20-30 g, 30-40 g, and 40-50 g) and three plant spacings (60 x 15 cm, 60 x 30 cm, and 60 x 45 cm) were examined. The study found significant effects of both plant spacing and tuber size on various growth and yield parameters. Increasing plant spacing generally led to increased shoot growth and tuber weight per plant but decreased plant height and overall tuber yield. Similarly, larger tuber sizes were associated with higher emergence rates and yields. The 'Desiree' potato variety showed the highest total tuber yield (62.363 t/ha) when planted with 40–50 g tubers at a spacing of 60 x 15 cm, followed by a yield of 41.136 t/ha with 30–40 g tubers at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm. Optimal production was achieved with a spacing of 60 x 15 cm, and using 40–50 g tubers resulted in the highest yield.

A field experiment was carried out to investigate the impact of different plant spacings and tuber sizes on the growth and yield of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.). Four tuber sizes (10-20 g, 20-30 g, 30-40 g, and 40-50 g) and three plant spacings (60 x 15 cm, 60 x 30 cm, and 60 x 45 cm) were examined. The study found significant effects of both plant spacing and tuber size on various growth and yield parameters. Increasing plant spacing generally led to increased shoot growth and tuber weight per plant but decreased plant height and overall tuber yield. Similarly, larger tuber sizes were associated with higher emergence rates and yields. The 'Desiree' potato variety showed the highest total tuber yield (62.363 t/ha) when planted with 40–50 g tubers at a spacing of 60 x 15 cm, followed by a yield of 41.136 t/ha with 30–40 g tubers at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm. Optimal production was achieved with a spacing of 60 x 15 cm, and using 40–50 g tubers resulted in the highest yield.

Open-field tomatoes in Virginia are traditionally planted in a single row with 2 ft (0.60 m) of in-row spacing, resulting in a plant density of 4356 plants per acre (10,890 plants/ha). However, there has been increasing interest among small and medium-sized farmers in high tunnel production. In order to be profitable, farmers must maximize their yield per unit area and take advantage of the potential benefits of producing under high tunnels. A common approach under greenhouse conditions is to increase the planting density to enhance yield per area. However, high tunnel farmers often extrapolate open-field practices to their high tunnels as they believe both systems are closer related together than to greenhouse production. In those cases, high tunnel farmers could potentially be neglecting yield increases due to their planting density selection. Additionally, irrigation and fertilization management (fertigation) under high tunnels tend to be more efficient than open-field systems, as the frequency of application is increased with a lower volume per application. A higher efficiency of fertigation could alter plant yield responses, especially under traditional planting-density systems. Hence, this study aimed to identify the effect of high planting density on high tunnel tomatoes and their nutrient status on the Eastern Shore of Virginia. The experiment was established on a completely randomized block design with four replications, with 20 ft (6.09 m) experimental plots. We evaluated the combination of two in-row distances and single and double planting rows, with treatments consisting of 2 ft of in-row distance in a single row (4356 plants/acre—current open-field recommendation), 1.5 ft (0.45 m) of in-row distance in a single row (5808 plants/acre [14,520 plants/ha]), 2 ft of in-row distance in a double row (8712 plants/acre [21,780 plants/ha]), and 1.5 ft of in-row distance in a double row (11,616 plants/acre [29,040 plants/ha]). Summer-grown tomatoes produced

The investigation into the impact of nitrogen doses and spacing on the growth and yield-related parameters of chili was conducted during the Spring season of 2022 at the Experimental Farm of the Department of Horticulture Science, Kabul University. The study explored the effects of varying nitrogen doses (0 kg/ha, 100 kg/ha, 140 kg/ha, and 180 kg/ha) and different spacings (40cm × 45cm, 50cm × 45cm, and 60cm × 45cm) on key parameters including days to fifty percent flowering, number of primary branches, plant height, plant spread, fruit dimensions, average fruit weight, fruit yield per plant, fruit yield per plot, and days to maturity. In general, an increase in nitrogen dose was associated with higher values for the number of primary branches, days to 50% flowering, plant height, number of fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant, fruit yield per plot, plant spread, and days to fruit maturity. However, nitrogen doses did not significantly influence fruit traits such as length, width, and average weight. Meanwhile, different spacing had a notable impact on the number of primary branches, plant height, number of fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant, fruit yield per plot, plant spread, and days to maturity. Wider plant spacing correlated with increased primary branches, fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant and per plot, and greater plant spread. Conversely, reduced plant spacing resulted in increased plant height. The interaction between spacing and nitrogen doses significantly affected only the number of branches, with non-significant interaction effects observed for all other yield and yield-related parameters. Increased nitrogen application, particularly at a rate of 180 kg N per hectare, led to improved chili fruit yield. Similarly, wider plant spacing, specifically at 60 cm × 45 cm, demonstrated the highest increase in chili yield.

The investigation into the impact of nitrogen doses and spacing on the growth and yield-related parameters of chili was conducted during the Spring season of 2022 at the Experimental Farm of the Department of Horticulture Science, Kabul University. The study explored the effects of varying nitrogen doses (0 kg/ha, 100 kg/ha, 140 kg/ha, and 180 kg/ha) and different spacings (40cm × 45cm, 50cm × 45cm, and 60cm × 45cm) on key parameters including days to fifty percent flowering, number of primary branches, plant height, plant spread, fruit dimensions, average fruit weight, fruit yield per plant, fruit yield per plot, and days to maturity. In general, an increase in nitrogen dose was associated with higher values for the number of primary branches, days to 50% flowering, plant height, number of fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant, fruit yield per plot, plant spread, and days to fruit maturity. However, nitrogen doses did not significantly influence fruit traits such as length, width, and average weight. Meanwhile, different spacing had a notable impact on the number of primary branches, plant height, number of fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant, fruit yield per plot, plant spread, and days to maturity. Wider plant spacing correlated with increased primary branches, fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant and per plot, and greater plant spread. Conversely, reduced plant spacing resulted in increased plant height. The interaction between spacing and nitrogen doses significantly affected only the number of branches, with non-significant interaction effects observed for all other yield and yield-related parameters. Increased nitrogen application, particularly at a rate of 180 kg N per hectare, led to improved chili fruit yield. Similarly, wider plant spacing, specifically at 60 cm × 45 cm, demonstrated the highest increase in chili yield.

The dataset was generated for the needs of the 3rd International Autonomous Greenhouse Challenge in the experimental facilities of the Greenhouse Horticulture Business Unit in Bleiswijk, The Netherlands in 2022. Information regarding the competition can be found here http://www.autonomousgreenhouses.com

Mangrove planting has been employed for decades to achieve aims associated with restoration and afforestation. Often, survival of planted mangroves is low. Improving survival might be aided by augmenting the understanding of which planting methods and environmental variables most influence plant survival across a range of contexts. The aim of this study was to provide a global synthesis of the influence of planting methods and background environment on mangrove survival. This was achieved through a global meta-analysis, which compiled published survival rates for the period 1979–2021 and analyzed the influence of decisions about minimum spacing and which life stage to plant, and environmental contexts such as climate, tidal range and coastal setting on the reported survival of planted individuals, classified by species and root morphology. Generalized Additive Mixed Modeling (GAMM) revealed that planting larger mangrove saplings was associated with increased survival for pencil-rooted species such as Avicennia spp. and Sonneratia spp. (17% increase cf. seedlings), while greater plant spacing was associated with higher survival of stilt-rooted species in the family Rhizophoraceae (39% increase when doubling plant spacing from 1.5 to 3.0 m). Tidal range showed a nonlinear positive correlation with survival for pencil-rooted species, and the coastal environmental setting was associated with significant variation in survival for both pencil-and stilt-rooted species. The results suggest that improving decisions about which species to plant in different contexts, and intensive care after planting, is likely to improve the survival of planted mangroves.

Mangrove planting has been employed for decades to achieve aims associated with restoration and afforestation. Often, survival of planted mangroves is low. Improving survival might be aided by augmenting the understanding of which planting methods and environmental variables most influence plant survival across a range of contexts. The aim of this study was to provide a global synthesis of the influence of planting methods and background environment on mangrove survival. This was achieved through a global meta-analysis, which compiled published survival rates for the period 1979–2021 and analyzed the influence of decisions about minimum spacing and which life stage to plant, and environmental contexts such as climate, tidal range and coastal setting on the reported survival of planted individuals, classified by species and root morphology. Generalized Additive Mixed Modeling (GAMM) revealed that planting larger mangrove saplings was associated with increased survival for pencil-rooted species such as Avicennia spp. and Sonneratia spp. (17% increase cf. seedlings), while greater plant spacing was associated with higher survival of stilt-rooted species in the family Rhizophoraceae (39% increase when doubling plant spacing from 1.5 to 3.0 m). Tidal range showed a nonlinear positive correlation with survival for pencil-rooted species, and the coastal environmental setting was associated with significant variation in survival for both pencil-and stilt-rooted species. The results suggest that improving decisions about which species to plant in different contexts, and intensive care after planting, is likely to improve the survival of planted mangroves.

Introduction. Mucuna is a prostrate and climbing plant, whose biomass can contribute annually to the soil up to 331 kg of nitrogen per hectare. Currently, it is used as a natural fertilizer and soil cover in palm and mango plantations and in rotation system with corn and beans. Objective. The objective was to analyze the development of M. pruriens and establish the appropriate sowing density for seed production, in a trellis system. Materials and methods. The study was developed at the Fabio Baudrit Moreno Experimental Station (EEAFBM) of the Universidad de Costa Rica. The growth and productivity of the mucuna sown at densities of 4900, 3267 and 2450 plants.ha-1 were analyzed. The vegetative and reproductive development of the plant, the phenology and the accumulated degree days were evaluated. The leaf area index, harvest index and yield were calculated. Results. The total cultivation cycle took 19 weeks. The productivity of the plants sown at densities of 4900, 3267 and 2450 plants.ha-1, was 2611, 1207 and 807 kg.ha-1, respectively. During week 15, the maximum value of the leaf area index (5,8) was reached. At 4900 plants.ha-1 the highest yield was obtained (2611 kg.ha-1), with a harvest index (0,19) and pods per plant (125). Conclusion. Regarding the development of the plants, no differences were found between the densities used, however, with the density of 4900 plants.ha-1, a higher crop yield was achieved., Introducción. La mucuna es una planta postrada y trepadora, cuya biomasa puede aportar anualmente al suelo hasta 331 kg de nitrógeno por hectárea. Actualmente, se utiliza como fertilizante natural y como cobertura vegetal en plantaciones de palma, mango y en rotación con maíz y frijol. Objetivo. El objetivo fue analizar el desarrollo de M. pruriens y establecer la densidad de siembra adecuada para la producción de semilla, en un sistema de espaldera. Materiales y métodos. El estudio fue desarrollado en la Estación Experimental Fabio Baudrit Moreno (EEAFBM) de la Universidad de Costa Rica. Se analizó el crecimiento y la productividad de la mucuna sembrada a densidades de 4900, 3267 y 2450 plantas.ha-1. Se evaluó el desarrollo vegetativo y reproductivo de la planta, la fenología y los grados día acumulados. Se determinó el índice de área foliar y de cosecha e se calculó el rendimiento. Resultados. El ciclo total del cultivo abarcó 19 semanas. La productividad de las plantas sembradas a densidades de 4900, 3267 y 2450 plantas.ha-1, fue de 2611, 1207 y 807 kg.ha-1, respectivamente. Durante la semana 15 se alcanzó el valor máximo de índice de área foliar (5,8). A 4900 plantas.ha-1 se obtuvo el mayor rendimiento (2611 kg.ha-1), de índice de cosecha (0,19) y de vainas por planta (125). Conclusión. Con respecto al desarrollo de las plantas, no se encontraron diferencias entre las densidades utilizadas, sin embargo, con la densidad de 4900 plantas.ha-1 se logró alcanzar un mayor rendimiento del cultivo.

Introduction. Mucuna is a prostrate and climbing plant, whose biomass can contribute annually to the soil up to 331 kg of nitrogen per hectare. Currently, it is used as a natural fertilizer and soil cover in palm and mango plantations and in rotation system with corn and beans. Objective. The objective was to analyze the development of M. pruriens and establish the appropriate sowing density for seed production, in a trellis system. Materials and methods. The study was developed at the Fabio Baudrit Moreno Experimental Station (EEAFBM) of the Universidad de Costa Rica. The growth and productivity of the mucuna sown at densities of 4900, 3267 and 2450 plants.ha-1 were analyzed. The vegetative and reproductive development of the plant, the phenology and the accumulated degree days were evaluated. The leaf area index, harvest index and yield were calculated. Results. The total cultivation cycle took 19 weeks. The productivity of the plants sown at densities of 4900, 3267 and 2450 plants.ha-1, was 2611, 1207 and 807 kg.ha-1, respectively. During week 15, the maximum value of the leaf area index (5,8) was reached. At 4900 plants.ha-1 the highest yield was obtained (2611 kg.ha-1), with a harvest index (0,19) and pods per plant (125). Conclusion. Regarding the development of the plants, no differences were found between the densities used, however, with the density of 4900 plants.ha-1, a higher crop yield was achieved., Introducción. La mucuna es una planta postrada y trepadora, cuya biomasa puede aportar anualmente al suelo hasta 331 kg de nitrógeno por hectárea. Actualmente, se utiliza como fertilizante natural y como cobertura vegetal en plantaciones de palma, mango y en rotación con maíz y frijol. Objetivo. El objetivo fue analizar el desarrollo de M. pruriens y establecer la densidad de siembra adecuada para la producción de semilla, en un sistema de espaldera. Materiales y métodos. El estudio fue desarrollado en la Estación Experimental Fabio Baudrit Moreno (EEAFBM) de la Universidad de Costa Rica. Se analizó el crecimiento y la productividad de la mucuna sembrada a densidades de 4900, 3267 y 2450 plantas.ha-1. Se evaluó el desarrollo vegetativo y reproductivo de la planta, la fenología y los grados día acumulados. Se determinó el índice de área foliar y de cosecha e se calculó el rendimiento. Resultados. El ciclo total del cultivo abarcó 19 semanas. La productividad de las plantas sembradas a densidades de 4900, 3267 y 2450 plantas.ha-1, fue de 2611, 1207 y 807 kg.ha-1, respectivamente. Durante la semana 15 se alcanzó el valor máximo de índice de área foliar (5,8). A 4900 plantas.ha-1 se obtuvo el mayor rendimiento (2611 kg.ha-1), de índice de cosecha (0,19) y de vainas por planta (125). Conclusión. Con respecto al desarrollo de las plantas, no se encontraron diferencias entre las densidades utilizadas, sin embargo, con la densidad de 4900 plantas.ha-1 se logró alcanzar un mayor rendimiento del cultivo.

Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr., locally known as Sambung Nyawa, has been documented to possess high phytochemicals. Light intensity and plant density are known parameters that affect composition and quantity of phytochemicals in plants. The present 3-part study examined the effects of these parameters on growth and development of G. procumbens aimed at producing higher biomass yield with consistently high secondary metabolite contents. The first experiment was conducted to determine the effects of four levels of shades (0, 30, 50 and 70%) on growth, physiological attributes, biomass yield and phytochemical contents using nested design with four replications. Results showed significant effects of shade levels on plants grown under 30% shade recording high total leaf fresh weight (TLFW), total fresh weight (TFW), total leaf dry weight (TLDW) and total dry weight (TDW), with increased number of branches and higher crop growth rate. Control treatment (0% of shade) revealed the lowest fresh and dry biomass yield in TLFW, TFW, TLDW and TDW corresponding to low net photosynthesis rate, total chlorophyll content, leaf area and number of branches. Total phenol, flavonoid contents, C/N ratio and antioxidant activities decreased with increase in shade levels. The highest phenol and flavonoid yields per plant were recorded from 30% shade producing high biomass yield, while high phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities were recorded from control plants. The second experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of different shade levels (0 and 30% shade) and plant density (9, 15 and 25 plants m-2) on shoot-root ratio (SRR) and its relationship with growth, physiology and phytochemical composition. Increasing shade level to 30% significantly affected shoot-root ratio (SRR), total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC). Increasing plant density from 9 to 25 plants m-2 resulted in significant decrease in SRR, whereas, TPC and TFC increased. Under stress

Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr., locally known as Sambung Nyawa, has been documented to possess high phytochemicals. Light intensity and plant density are known parameters that affect composition and quantity of phytochemicals in plants. The present 3-part study examined the effects of these parameters on growth and development of G. procumbens aimed at producing higher biomass yield with consistently high secondary metabolite contents. The first experiment was conducted to determine the effects of four levels of shades (0, 30, 50 and 70%) on growth, physiological attributes, biomass yield and phytochemical contents using nested design with four replications. Results showed significant effects of shade levels on plants grown under 30% shade recording high total leaf fresh weight (TLFW), total fresh weight (TFW), total leaf dry weight (TLDW) and total dry weight (TDW), with increased number of branches and higher crop growth rate. Control treatment (0% of shade) revealed the lowest fresh and dry biomass yield in TLFW, TFW, TLDW and TDW corresponding to low net photosynthesis rate, total chlorophyll content, leaf area and number of branches. Total phenol, flavonoid contents, C/N ratio and antioxidant activities decreased with increase in shade levels. The highest phenol and flavonoid yields per plant were recorded from 30% shade producing high biomass yield, while high phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities were recorded from control plants. The second experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of different shade levels (0 and 30% shade) and plant density (9, 15 and 25 plants m-2) on shoot-root ratio (SRR) and its relationship with growth, physiology and phytochemical composition. Increasing shade level to 30% significantly affected shoot-root ratio (SRR), total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC). Increasing plant density from 9 to 25 plants m-2 resulted in significant decrease in SRR, whereas, TPC and TFC increased. Under stress

Sklop biljaka ima značajan uticaj na morfološke osobine i ostvareni prinos soje. Broj zrna i masa zrna po biljci soje smanjuju se sa povećanjem gustine useva, dok je najveći prinos ostvaren pri optimalnim gustinama za pojedine grupe zrenja, a sa povećanjem ili smanjenjem gustine useva prinos se smanjuje. Cilj ovoga rada je da se utvrde optimalne gustine setve soje za pojedine grupe zrenja i sagleda uticaj različitih sklopova na broj i masu zrna po biljci., Plant spacing has a significant influence on the morphological characteristics and the achieved soybean yield. The number of grains and grain weight per soybean plant decreases with increasing crop density, while the highest yield is achieved at optimal densities for certain maturity groups and with increasing or decreasing crop density the yield decreases. The aim of this work is to determine the optimal soybean sowing densities for individual maturity groups and to consider the influence of different gatherings on the number and weight of grains per plant.

Although evapotranspiration-induced matric suction for single species has been widely studied, little is known about how mixed-species planting would affect plant growth and induced matric suction. This study aims to explore the effects of grass–tree interaction on their growth and induced matric suction during evapotranspiration (ET) and rainfalls. Field monitoring was carried out to measure matric suction responses in compacted soil that was vegetated with (i) single tree species, Schefflera heptaphylla, and (ii) mixed species of the trees and a grass species, Cynodon dactylon. In each condition, three tree spacings (120, 180, and 240 mm) were planted. When tree spacing increased from 120 to 240 mm, the peak tree root area index (RAI, for fine roots with diameter <2 mm) decreased by 16%, but the peak grass RAI increased by 29%. At mixed planting plots, the ET-induced peak matric suction for a tree spacing of 240 mm was 20% higher than that for a spacing of 180 mm because of increased contribution of grass-root water uptake as the trees were more widely spaced. Without grass, a reverse trend was observed as tree–tree interaction reduced at wide spacings. The peak ET-induced matric suction had a significant linear correlation with RAI. During rainfalls, the highest matric suction was preserved for the case of 240 mm spacing due to the greatest reduction of soil hydraulic conductivity by the presence of roots.

Although evapotranspiration-induced matric suction for single species has been widely studied, little is known about how mixed-species planting would affect plant growth and induced matric suction. This study aims to explore the effects of grass–tree interaction on their growth and induced matric suction during evapotranspiration (ET) and rainfalls. Field monitoring was carried out to measure matric suction responses in compacted soil that was vegetated with (i) single tree species, Schefflera heptaphylla, and (ii) mixed species of the trees and a grass species, Cynodon dactylon. In each condition, three tree spacings (120, 180, and 240 mm) were planted. When tree spacing increased from 120 to 240 mm, the peak tree root area index (RAI, for fine roots with diameter <2 mm) decreased by 16%, but the peak grass RAI increased by 29%. At mixed planting plots, the ET-induced peak matric suction for a tree spacing of 240 mm was 20% higher than that for a spacing of 180 mm because of increased contribution of grass-root water uptake as the trees were more widely spaced. Without grass, a reverse trend was observed as tree–tree interaction reduced at wide spacings. The peak ET-induced matric suction had a significant linear correlation with RAI. During rainfalls, the highest matric suction was preserved for the case of 240 mm spacing due to the greatest reduction of soil hydraulic conductivity by the presence of roots.

A field experiment on African marigold (TagetserectaL.) was conducted during winter season of 2014-15 to study the effect of NPK, biofertilizers and plant spacings on growth and yield of African marigold (Tagetes erecta Linn). The treatment combinations F6 100 % RDF of NPK + Azotobacter + PSB recorded the maximum longevity of intact flower (27.93), average diameter of flower (7.37 cm), average weight of flower (8.96 g) number of flowers per plant (56.54), yield of flowers per plant (515.62 g), per plot (11.93 kg) and highest flower yield ha (184.13 q). The spacing D3 (60× 60 cm) registered significant (5 %) maximum longevity of intact flower, larger size flower (7.80 cm), average weight of flower (9.14 g) and highest flower yield per plant (456.22 g). Highest flower yield per plot (10.19 kg), number of flower per plant (52.22) and per hectare flower yield (157.29 q/ha) with 60× 45 cm. These results are conclusive that application of 100 % RDF of NPK + Azotobacter+ PSB and plant spacing (60× 45 cm) may positively increase the growth and flowers yield parameters of marigold.

Although evapotranspiration-induced matric suction for single species has been widely studied, little is known about how mixed-species planting would affect plant growth and induced matric suction. This study aims to explore the effects of grass–tree interaction on their growth and induced matric suction during evapotranspiration (ET) and rainfalls. Field monitoring was carried out to measure matric suction responses in compacted soil that was vegetated with (i) single tree species, Schefflera heptaphylla, and (ii) mixed species of the trees and a grass species, Cynodon dactylon. In each condition, three tree spacings (120, 180, and 240 mm) were planted. When tree spacing increased from 120 to 240 mm, the peak tree root area index (RAI, for fine roots with diameter <2 mm) decreased by 16%, but the peak grass RAI increased by 29%. At mixed planting plots, the ET-induced peak matric suction for a tree spacing of 240 mm was 20% higher than that for a spacing of 180 mm because of increased contribution of grass-root water uptake as the trees were more widely spaced. Without grass, a reverse trend was observed as tree–tree interaction reduced at wide spacings. The peak ET-induced matric suction had a significant linear correlation with RAI. During rainfalls, the highest matric suction was preserved for the case of 240 mm spacing due to the greatest reduction of soil hydraulic conductivity by the presence of roots. © 2017, Canadian Science Publishing. All rights reserved.

This study comprised of two sets of experiments. The plant house and field trials were conducted at MARDI Bertam Rice Research Station in Seberang Perai, Penang. First experiment was conducted in plant house and it was repeated in the field. The second experiment which also repeated was conducted both at experimental field. These studies began in December 2008 and ended in March 2011. Weeds are the greatest constraint in aerobic rice cultivation due to lack of water standing to suppress weed. Therefore, by adoption of competitive rice varieties and the optimum plant spacing could reduce yield losses due to weed competition. The objectives of the first experiment were to evaluate the competitive ability of five rice varieties (AERON 1, AERON 4, M9, MR211 and MR 220CL2) against weeds under aerobic rice systems, and thus determining the suitable variety for aerobic rice cultivation. The above five rice varieties were evaluated to determine their performance under two weeding regimes (weedy and weed free condition). The experimental units were kept unweeded (weedy treatment) and weed free (weed free treatment) throughout the growing season. Manual weeding and the application of recommended herbicides (Sofit and Satunil) were conducted to control weeds in weed free treatments. AERON 1 had resulted in the lowest weed dry weight and weed density while the highest was observed in MR211, in both plant house and field experiments. Sixteen weed species had infested the experimental unit in the plant house and field experiments. In weed composition, the sum dominance ratio (SDR) value showed that grasses infested at the highest percentage as compared to those of sedges and broadleaves (resulted in minor infestation). Leptochloa chinensis was the most dominant weed in plant house while in field was Echinochloa colona. Weed competition gave negative effect on selected parameters of growth and development [plant height, tiller number and SPAD value],grain yield and yield component

This study comprised of two sets of experiments. The plant house and field trials were conducted at MARDI Bertam Rice Research Station in Seberang Perai, Penang. First experiment was conducted in plant house and it was repeated in the field. The second experiment which also repeated was conducted both at experimental field. These studies began in December 2008 and ended in March 2011. Weeds are the greatest constraint in aerobic rice cultivation due to lack of water standing to suppress weed. Therefore, by adoption of competitive rice varieties and the optimum plant spacing could reduce yield losses due to weed competition. The objectives of the first experiment were to evaluate the competitive ability of five rice varieties (AERON 1, AERON 4, M9, MR211 and MR 220CL2) against weeds under aerobic rice systems, and thus determining the suitable variety for aerobic rice cultivation. The above five rice varieties were evaluated to determine their performance under two weeding regimes (weedy and weed free condition). The experimental units were kept unweeded (weedy treatment) and weed free (weed free treatment) throughout the growing season. Manual weeding and the application of recommended herbicides (Sofit and Satunil) were conducted to control weeds in weed free treatments. AERON 1 had resulted in the lowest weed dry weight and weed density while the highest was observed in MR211, in both plant house and field experiments. Sixteen weed species had infested the experimental unit in the plant house and field experiments. In weed composition, the sum dominance ratio (SDR) value showed that grasses infested at the highest percentage as compared to those of sedges and broadleaves (resulted in minor infestation). Leptochloa chinensis was the most dominant weed in plant house while in field was Echinochloa colona. Weed competition gave negative effect on selected parameters of growth and development [plant height, tiller number and SPAD value],grain yield and yield component

The present investigation was conducted to examine the effect of spacing on variation in canopy microclimate, vegetative growth and yield attributes in guava (cv. Allahabad Safeda). Oservations revealed that with wide plant spacing (from 6x2m to 6x4m), interception of solar radiation increased significantly. Similarly, with increase in spacing between plants, mean canopy temperature was need to increase while relative humidity decreased. Plant growth in terms of stock and scion girth, tree spread (N-S) and canopy volume increased with wide plant spacing, while tree height decreased with increase in plant spacing. Number of fruits per plant, yield per plant and fruiting density was higher at 6x5m and least in 6x2m spacing. Wider plant spacing was found to be better owing to maximum absorption of solar radiation and optimum microclimate in the orchard leading to better yield in plants, higher fruiting density and yield efficiency. However, yield/ha was maximum in 6x2m spacing during rainy season and in 6x3m spacing during winter.

The present investigation was conducted to examine the effect of spacing on variation in canopy microclimate, vegetative growth and yield attributes in guava (cv. Allahabad Safeda). Oservations revealed that with wide plant spacing (from 6x2m to 6x4m), interception of solar radiation increased significantly. Similarly, with increase in spacing between plants, mean canopy temperature was need to increase while relative humidity decreased. Plant growth in terms of stock and scion girth, tree spread (N-S) and canopy volume increased with wide plant spacing, while tree height decreased with increase in plant spacing. Number of fruits per plant, yield per plant and fruiting density was higher at 6x5m and least in 6x2m spacing. Wider plant spacing was found to be better owing to maximum absorption of solar radiation and optimum microclimate in the orchard leading to better yield in plants, higher fruiting density and yield efficiency. However, yield/ha was maximum in 6x2m spacing during rainy season and in 6x3m spacing during winter.

The aim of this study was to evaluate by growth analysis (GA) changes in physiological characteristics of common bean, IPR Tiziu cultivar, subjected to different seeding densities (SD) in order to identify the best spatial arrangement of plants. The experimental design was a randomized block with four replicates. The treatments consisted of five DS: 8, 10, 12, 14 and 18 plants m-1, respectively, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 pl m-2. For evaluations, 12 plants were collected from each plot weekly. Twelve plants from each plot were collected for GA and the results evidenced an increase of leaf area index (LAI) and total dry matter (TDM) until 57 days after emergence (DAE), while crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR) and leaf area ratio (LAR) decreased as the crop developed. SD of 30 plant m-2 was the most efficient in the utilization of environmental resources related to conversion of luminous energy and CO2 in dry matter because the values of TDM, CGR and NAR were higher. However, treatments did not differ significantly between themselves for yield components and grain yield, despite SD of 30 plant m-2 has presented 600 kg ha-1 higher yield when compared to the lower grain yield. The use of higher SD causes significant decrease of NAR, CGR, LAR due to the increase of LAI that causes more auto-shading on the crop, decreasing the photosynthetic efficiency of common bean., O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar por meio da análise de crescimento, as variações nas características fisiológicas do feijoeiro comum, cultivar IPR Tiziu, submetidos a diferentes densidades de semeadura, buscando identificar a melhor disposição espacial das plantas. O delineamento experimental foi de blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições, os tratamentos consistiram de cinco densidades de semeadura (DS): 8, 10, 12, 14 e 18 plantas m-1, respectivamente, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 pl m-2. Para avaliação, semanalmente coletaram-se 12 plantas de cada parcela. Os resultados evidenciaram aumento do índice de área foliar (IAF) e da matéria seca total (MST) até 57 dias após a emergência (DAE), enquanto a taxa de crescimento da cultura (TCC), taxa de crescimento relativo (TCR), taxa assimilatória líquida (TAL) e razão de área foliar (RAF) apresentaram redução durante o ciclo da cultura. A DS de 30 pl m-2 foi a mais eficiente no aproveitamento dos recursos do ambiente quanto à conversão de energia luminosa e CO2 em MST, já que apresentou os maiores valores de MST, TCC e TAL. Entretanto, os tratamentos não diferiram significativamente entre si para os componentes do rendimento e rendimento de grãos. A maior DS promoveu menor TAL, TCC, RAF devido ao aumento do IAF, o que provocou auto-sombreamento na cultura, diminuindo a eficiência fotossintética do feijoeiro.

The aim of this study was to evaluate by growth analysis (GA) changes in physiological characteristics of common bean, IPR Tiziu cultivar, subjected to different seeding densities (SD) in order to identify the best spatial arrangement of plants. The experimental design was a randomized block with four replicates. The treatments consisted of five DS: 8, 10, 12, 14 and 18 plants m-1, respectively, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 pl m-2. For evaluations, 12 plants were collected from each plot weekly. Twelve plants from each plot were collected for GA and the results evidenced an increase of leaf area index (LAI) and total dry matter (TDM) until 57 days after emergence (DAE), while crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR) and leaf area ratio (LAR) decreased as the crop developed. SD of 30 plant m-2 was the most efficient in the utilization of environmental resources related to conversion of luminous energy and CO2 in dry matter because the values of TDM, CGR and NAR were higher. However, treatments did not differ significantly between themselves for yield components and grain yield, despite SD of 30 plant m-2 has presented 600 kg ha-1 higher yield when compared to the lower grain yield. The use of higher SD causes significant decrease of NAR, CGR, LAR due to the increase of LAI that causes more auto-shading on the crop, decreasing the photosynthetic efficiency of common bean., O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar por meio da análise de crescimento, as variações nas características fisiológicas do feijoeiro comum, cultivar IPR Tiziu, submetidos a diferentes densidades de semeadura, buscando identificar a melhor disposição espacial das plantas. O delineamento experimental foi de blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições, os tratamentos consistiram de cinco densidades de semeadura (DS): 8, 10, 12, 14 e 18 plantas m-1, respectivamente, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 pl m-2. Para avaliação, semanalmente coletaram-se 12 plantas de cada parcela. Os resultados evidenciaram aumento do índice de área foliar (IAF) e da matéria seca total (MST) até 57 dias após a emergência (DAE), enquanto a taxa de crescimento da cultura (TCC), taxa de crescimento relativo (TCR), taxa assimilatória líquida (TAL) e razão de área foliar (RAF) apresentaram redução durante o ciclo da cultura. A DS de 30 pl m-2 foi a mais eficiente no aproveitamento dos recursos do ambiente quanto à conversão de energia luminosa e CO2 em MST, já que apresentou os maiores valores de MST, TCC e TAL. Entretanto, os tratamentos não diferiram significativamente entre si para os componentes do rendimento e rendimento de grãos. A maior DS promoveu menor TAL, TCC, RAF devido ao aumento do IAF, o que provocou auto-sombreamento na cultura, diminuindo a eficiência fotossintética do feijoeiro.

Summary: The objective of this research was to determine the effect of different fertilizers and the effect of plant spacing (population) on growth and yield of several indigenous vegetables. Inorganic fertilization increased yield of beluntas, kenikir and kemangi. Fertilization did not give effect on katuk. Optimum population of katuk is 160,000 plant /ha, while for kemangi, the optimum population could not be determined. It could be increased to more than 200,000 plants/ha. There was no significant effect of plant spacing in kenikir. Three undergraduate students (all women) were involved. Two of them (Mega Ayu Lestari and Ratna Pambayun) graduated in September 2008. However, due to planting problem of terubuk, one of them (Nia Kurniatusholihat) will graduate later in December 2008. TMPEGS Indonesia had a meeting during preparation/proposal presentation at the early fiscal year and result presentation at mid fiscal year. Country coordinator invited researchers to discuss issues across fields. Result of the current research will be used as leaflet development and later be used for extension purpose in the next fiscal year.

The abundance of pests and the rate of plant damages are controlled by the maize seed treatments with insecticides, as a preventive measure and a measure leading towards the lower population. It is expected that insecticides are efficient when used in relatively small dosages and that are not phytotoxic to seeds and young plants. The aim of the present study was to test the efficiency of imidacloprid and thiametoxam via both, the maintenance of plant spacing and obtained grain yield and also to check the response of certain hybrids to the seed treatment with systemic insecticides. Eight commercial ZP hybrids, four medium early maturity and four full season hybrids, were selected to test imidacloprid (Gaucho 350 FS - 1.0 l per 100 kg seeds) and thiametoxam (Cruiser 350 FS in the amount of 0.6, 0.9 and 1.0 l per 100 kg seeds). Seeds of all hybrids, including the control, were treated with the fungicide Maxim XL 035-FS (150g/100 kg seeds). Strip trials were performed in six locations in south Banat in the 2004-2007 period. The number of plants ha-1 at harvest and grain yield (t ha-1 at 14% moisture), in four replications of 10 m2 each, were recorded and then indices of plant spacing and grain yields for each hybrid over locations and years were calculated. The indices were estimated by the formula of values of plant spacing and the yield in treatments/ values in the control. Plant spacing: the average number of plants in the treatment with imidacloprid Gaucho 600 FS (63 hybrids/locations) and the control was 48,627 ha-1 and 47,812 ha-1, respectively, while the positive difference amounted to 815 plants ha-1 in the treatment. The index of plant spacing was 103.2, and it varied over hybrids, locations and years from 74.9 to 161.4. The corresponding values in the treatment with Cruisera 350 FS (70 hybrids/locations) and the control were 49,945 ha-1 and 49,749 ha-1, respectively. A positive difference in favour of the treatment amounted to 196 plants ha-1. The index of pla, Nakon prelaska sa višegodišnje monokulture na gajenje kukuruza u plodoredu, pa i u ponovljenoj setvi, brojnost populacije kukuruzne zlatice se smanjila ispod ekonomskog značaja. Ostale su aktuelne samo autoktone zemljišne štetočine.Tretiranje semena kukuruza insekticidima, predstavlja preventivnu meru zaštite od žičnjaka i grčica, kao i od ptica koje vade klijance. Cilj ispitivanja bio je, da se testira efikasnost imidakloprida i tiametoksama preko očuvanja sklopa, ostvarenog prinosa zrna i proveri reagovanje osam hibrida na tretman semena navedenim sistemičnim insekticidima. Sklop biljaka: kod imidakloprida Gaucho 600 FS na 63 (hibrid x godina x lokalitet) pozitivna razlika iznosila je 815 biljaka/ha a kod tiametoksama Cruisera 350 FS 196 biljaka/ha. Indeks sklopa bio je 103.2, kod prvog i 100.4 kod drugog insekticida. Prinos zrna: primenom imidakloprida Gaucha 600 FS ostvarena je pozitivna razlika od 364 kg/ ha, a kod primene tiometoksama Cruisera 350 FS 570 kg/ha. Na osnovu prosečnih vrednosti ostvarenog sklopa biljaka i prinosa zrna može se zaključiti da su svih osam hibrida pokazali tolerantnost na oba ispitivana insekticida, uz napomenu da nekonzistentnost rezultata treba šire analizirati.

The abundance of pests and the rate of plant damages are controlled by the maize seed treatments with insecticides, as a preventive measure and a measure leading towards the lower population. It is expected that insecticides are efficient when used in relatively small dosages and that are not phytotoxic to seeds and young plants. The aim of the present study was to test the efficiency of imidacloprid and thiametoxam via both, the maintenance of plant spacing and obtained grain yield and also to check the response of certain hybrids to the seed treatment with systemic insecticides. Eight commercial ZP hybrids, four medium early maturity and four full season hybrids, were selected to test imidacloprid (Gaucho 350 FS - 1.0 l per 100 kg seeds) and thiametoxam (Cruiser 350 FS in the amount of 0.6, 0.9 and 1.0 l per 100 kg seeds). Seeds of all hybrids, including the control, were treated with the fungicide Maxim XL 035-FS (150g/100 kg seeds). Strip trials were performed in six locations in south Banat in the 2004-2007 period. The number of plants ha-1 at harvest and grain yield (t ha-1 at 14% moisture), in four replications of 10 m2 each, were recorded and then indices of plant spacing and grain yields for each hybrid over locations and years were calculated. The indices were estimated by the formula of values of plant spacing and the yield in treatments/ values in the control. Plant spacing: the average number of plants in the treatment with imidacloprid Gaucho 600 FS (63 hybrids/locations) and the control was 48,627 ha-1 and 47,812 ha-1, respectively, while the positive difference amounted to 815 plants ha-1 in the treatment. The index of plant spacing was 103.2, and it varied over hybrids, locations and years from 74.9 to 161.4. The corresponding values in the treatment with Cruisera 350 FS (70 hybrids/locations) and the control were 49,945 ha-1 and 49,749 ha-1, respectively. A positive difference in favour of the treatment amounted to 196 plants ha-1. The index of pla, Nakon prelaska sa višegodišnje monokulture na gajenje kukuruza u plodoredu, pa i u ponovljenoj setvi, brojnost populacije kukuruzne zlatice se smanjila ispod ekonomskog značaja. Ostale su aktuelne samo autoktone zemljišne štetočine.Tretiranje semena kukuruza insekticidima, predstavlja preventivnu meru zaštite od žičnjaka i grčica, kao i od ptica koje vade klijance. Cilj ispitivanja bio je, da se testira efikasnost imidakloprida i tiametoksama preko očuvanja sklopa, ostvarenog prinosa zrna i proveri reagovanje osam hibrida na tretman semena navedenim sistemičnim insekticidima. Sklop biljaka: kod imidakloprida Gaucho 600 FS na 63 (hibrid x godina x lokalitet) pozitivna razlika iznosila je 815 biljaka/ha a kod tiametoksama Cruisera 350 FS 196 biljaka/ha. Indeks sklopa bio je 103.2, kod prvog i 100.4 kod drugog insekticida. Prinos zrna: primenom imidakloprida Gaucha 600 FS ostvarena je pozitivna razlika od 364 kg/ ha, a kod primene tiometoksama Cruisera 350 FS 570 kg/ha. Na osnovu prosečnih vrednosti ostvarenog sklopa biljaka i prinosa zrna može se zaključiti da su svih osam hibrida pokazali tolerantnost na oba ispitivana insekticida, uz napomenu da nekonzistentnost rezultata treba šire analizirati.

Summary: The objective of this research was to determine the effect of different fertilizers and the effect of plant spacing (population) on growth and yield of several indigenous vegetables. Inorganic fertilization increased yield of beluntas, kenikir and kemangi. Fertilization did not give effect on katuk. Optimum population of katuk is 160,000 plant /ha, while for kemangi, the optimum population could not be determined. It could be increased to more than 200,000 plants/ha. There was no significant effect of plant spacing in kenikir. Three undergraduate students (all women) were involved. Two of them (Mega Ayu Lestari and Ratna Pambayun) graduated in September 2008. However, due to planting problem of terubuk, one of them (Nia Kurniatusholihat) will graduate later in December 2008. TMPEGS Indonesia had a meeting during preparation/proposal presentation at the early fiscal year and result presentation at mid fiscal year. Country coordinator invited researchers to discuss issues across fields. Result of the current research will be used as leaflet development and later be used for extension purpose in the next fiscal year.

Control of individual tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) fruit weight during a crop cycle is of commercial benefit to improve marketable yield. To assess the main causes of variability in tomato fruit size, plant spacing and fruit thinning effects on fruit yield and individual fruit weight down the truss was examined. Three fresh market tomato cultivars, Alboran (Standard), Ophir (Beefsteak) and Cherita (Cherry) were grown, in New Zealand during winter and spring months of 2001, in a greenhouse with NFT at three plant densities (2.76, 3.67 and 4.59 plant per m 2 ). Each tomato cultivar was fruit thinned to three different levels (3, 4 and 5 fruit per truss for Alboran; 1, 2 and 3 fruit per truss for Ophir; 4, 8 and 12 fruit per truss for Cherita). Total fruit weight and fruit number were taken at each harvest for all treatments. At the low density (2.76 plants per m 2 ) individual fruit weights within each truss were taken for all fruit thinning treatments. A total soluble solid measurement was also taken during an August harvest. Alboran showed a significantly higher final fruit yield per surface area than Ophir and Cherita cultivars, indicating why Alboran is a standard cultivar. No difference in fruit yield or fruit number surface area was observed with both Alboran and Ophir cultivars as plant density increased. This was the result of flower and / or fruit abortion at the higher densities, due to low solar radiation levels observed under winter and spring conditions in this study. Cherita, although not significant, showed a trend of increasing fruit yield per surface area as plant density increased. The low solar radiation levels did not have as larger effect on flower and / or fruit abortion in Cherita. It had a lower fruit (sink) load and was able to support more fruit development with the low levels of photosynthetic assimilate produced under the low solar radiation levels. Larger mean fruit weights, in all three cultivars, were observed with more fruit t

Plant spacing is known to influence the size of pumpkins. To demonstrate this influence two jack-o-lantern cultivars and two giant pumpkin cultivars were grown at narrow and wide in-row spacings at Coulter's Farm in Westville, Indiana.

Plant spacing is known to influence the size of pumpkins. To demonstrate this influence two jack-o-lantern cultivars and two giant pumpkin cultivars were grown at narrow and wide in-row spacings at Coulter's Farm in Westville, Indiana.

Ces dernières années, tous ceux qui interviennent dans la gestion du milieu forestier font face à de nouvelles réalités (législation, ouverture de marchés, contraintes environnementales...)- Cette situation implique une réorganisation du travail et plus que jamais, on doit faire appel à des outils modernes et efficaces pour recueillir les données représentant les principaux paramètres d'un territoire forestier. Les expériences des dernières années ont démontré que la télédétection et les systèmes d'information à référence spatiale ouvrent de nouvelles avenues sur la façon d'acquérir et de gérer l'information forestière. L'objectif de ce travail est d'évaluer une méthode permettant de caractériser, à partir d'imagerie vidéographique, la densité (tiges/hectare) et l'état de défoliation des peuplements résineux d'un territoire forestier boréal. Le site étudié (86 km) est localisé en plein c?ur de la sous-zone boréale supérieure, à quelques 75 km au nord-ouest de la ville de Saint-Félicien au Lac-Saint-Jean. Ce territoire est sous la gestion de la compagnie forestière Donohue Saint-Félicien et est principalement composé de peuplements de résineux d'une haute densité forestière. Le site fut imagé à l'aide d'une version modifiée du capteur XYBION MSC-02 SPL-4076. Les bandes spectrales acquises sont le vert (550 nm), le rouge (650 nm) et enfin, le proche infrarouge (800 nm). Vingt-cinq lignes de vol dont les axes sont espacés de 400 m furent nécessaires pour échantillonner le territoire. En premier lieu, on a appliqué aux images des prétraitements de routine permettant de corriger l'aberration chromatique latérale et le défaut de registration entre les plans spectraux. Par la suite, les images dont le groupement d'essence est le résineux furent divisées en quatre groupes, en fonction de la densité forestière (A à D). Dans chaque groupe, on a sélectionné aléatoirement trente images à l'intérieur desquelles on a positionné arbitrairement une placette de 135 x 135 pixels. Ces

The United States share of the exported flue-cured tobacco market has decreased over the last decade as other countries have increased production of improved quality tobacco. Such tobacco is available at a substantially lower price than U. S. tobacco and thus desirable for the manufacture of less expensive discount cigarettes. Although world consumption of American style cigarettes is increasing, demand is not sufficient to maintain current production levels of premium quality U. S. flue-cured tobacco. Production systems that increase yields of suitable quality tobacco for discount cigarette manufacture without increasing production costs would allow tobacco to be offered competitively on the world market while maintaining current income. A study of ten management systems was conducted evaluating the influence of plant spacing, topping height, and harvest method on yield and quality of flue-cured tobacco. Leaf populations of 538,000/ha harvested once-over resulted in a 6.5%, 11.0%, 6.0%, and 13.5% increase in yield, value, price, and grade index, respectively, compared to the standard treatment. An expert panel showed no preference among systems and judged all systems acceptable in quality. A study conducted as a randomized complete block in a split plot arrangement evaluated the influence of row spacing and plant spacing on the yield and quality of flue-cured tobacco harvested once-over. Yield, value, and grade index increased while price per kg was unchanged as plant population increased. Flue-cured tobacco harvested in a single harvest produced cured leaf of acceptable quality; however, increased leaf populations are required to maintain acceptable yields.

The study was conducted to find out the effects of spacing and pruning system on the performance of 2 cultivars of bananas, namely, 'Mas' and 'Berangan'. The trial was conducted at 2 locations: MARDI Jerangau, Terengganu and MARDI Serdang, Selangor. For both locations the highest yield of the first crop of both cultivars was obtained at 1.5m x 1.5m spacing, followed by 3 m x 1.5 m and 3 m x 3 m spacings. In Jerangau, the yield of 'Mas' at 3 m x 3 m was 9 metric tons (mtl/ha; increased to 17 mt/ha at 3 m x 1.5 m and further increased to 31 mt/ha at 1.5 m x 1.5 m . For the ratoon crops, the yield trend was quite different from the plant crop.

The study was conducted to find out the effects of spacing and pruning system on the performance of 2 cultivars of bananas, namely, 'Mas' and 'Berangan'. The trial was conducted at 2 locations: MARDI Jerangau, Terengganu and MARDI Serdang, Selangor. For both locations the highest yield of the first crop of both cultivars was obtained at 1.5m x 1.5m spacing, followed by 3 m x 1.5 m and 3 m x 3 m spacings. In Jerangau, the yield of 'Mas' at 3 m x 3 m was 9 metric tons (mtl/ha; increased to 17 mt/ha at 3 m x 1.5 m and further increased to 31 mt/ha at 1.5 m x 1.5 m . For the ratoon crops, the yield trend was quite different from the plant crop.