Search

Since its founding in 1950, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has led the international policy of hosting refugees and displaced persons, using refugee camps as the main physical protection strategy. Although this option has solved and does solve reception emergencies, it tends to become entrenched over time and fails to provide feasible alternatives for subsistence and political autonomy, which has led those hosted to live in dependence on humanitarian aid, undocumented status, and hopelessness, contrary to expectations. In response, in 2014 UNHCR adopted the Camp Alternative Policy, which focuses on permanently hosting refugees in consolidated settlements to improve their inclusion and quality of life. Beyond the meager results obtained so far with this new policy, a critical reflection is presented on the social and spatial implications of an approach to the catch that questions how aid and humanitarian architecture have been understood, generating unprecedented challenges in design and management. Despite its implementation difficulties, this shift in strategy makes several timely proposals which, in our professional and academic understanding, are not being given the attention they deserve., Desde su fundación en 1950 el Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados (ACNUR) ha liderado la política internacional de acogida de refugiados y desplazados forzosos, utilizando los campos de refugiados como principal instrumento de protección física. Aunque esta opción ha resuelto y resuelve las urgencias de acogida, suele enquistarse en el tiempo y no da alternativas viables de subsistencia y autonomía política, lo que ha llevado a las personas acogidas a vivir de la dependencia de la ayuda humanitaria, la indocumentación y la desesperanza, al contrario de lo esperado. Ante ello, en 2014 ACNUR aprobó la Política Alternativa a los Campamentos, enfocada en la acogida permanente de los refugiados en asentamientos consolidados para mejorar su inclusión y su calidad de vida. Más allá de los magros resultados hasta ahora obtenidos con esta nueva política, se presenta una reflexión crítica sobre las implicaciones sociales y espaciales de un enfoque de la protección que cuestiona la manera en que se ha entendido la ayuda y la arquitectura humanitaria, generando inéditos desafíos de diseño y gestión. Pese a las dificultades que presenta su aplicación, la nueva estrategia formula una serie de propuestas oportunas a las que, según nuestro entender profesional y académico, no se le está prestando la atención que merecerían.

The institutionalization of human displacement, ratified with the creation of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1951), although effective in emergencies, However, it has had the unforeseen effect of prolonging situations that were conceived and programmed as temporary. This has raised questions about the nature of its action and has led to various limitations and dilemmas in asylum spaces, such as camps, indebted to a ‘manualistic’ approach that compresses life and architectural practice into instrumental indicators. The physical and legal dependence of refugees on the circumstances and decisions of the host states forces us to frame the discussion on refugees, and by extension, on refuge, as ontological problems. From this perspective, the proposed critical elaboration is that the evolution of the concept of reception spaces (or territories), as a physical manifestation of a political technology embodied in ‘manualistic’ practices, shapes an experience and management of refugee individuals that blurs their ontological status. This situation arises from the institutionalization of refuge and the consequent physical and legal dependence of refugees on external decisions. An ontological questioning of the refugee that, as we understand it, necessitates a reconsideration of the architecture and planning of refuge spaces., La institucionalización del desplazamiento humano consolidada con la creación del Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados en 1951 ha demostrado ser efectiva en situaciones de emergencia. Sin embargo, ha tenido el efecto imprevisto de prolongar situaciones que se concebían y programaban como temporales. Este fenómeno ha suscitado dudas sobre la verdadera naturaleza de la acción humanitaria, generando limitaciones y dilemas en los espacios de refugio, especialmente en los campos, que están vinculados a una perspectiva normativa que reduce la vida y la práctica de la arquitectura a simples indicadores instrumentales. La dependencia física y legal de los refugiados de las circunstancias y decisiones de los Estados receptores plantea un desafío fundamental que lleva a considerar la discusión sobre el refugiado y, por extensión, sobre el refugio, como problemas ontológicos. Desde esta perspectiva, se plantea críticamente que la evolución del concepto de los espacios de acogida, como expresión física de una política tecnológica concretada en manuales, configura una experiencia y gestión de las personas refugiadas que diluye su estatus ontológico. Esta situación surge como resultado directo de la institucionalización del refugio y la consiguiente subordinación física y jurídica de los refugiados a decisiones externas. Este cuestionamiento ontológico del refugiado subraya la necesidad de reconsiderar la arquitectura y la planificación de los espacios de refugio.

Aquest treball es tracta d’un disseny basic d’una EDAR (Estació depuradora d’aigües residuals) de petits cabals. L’objectiu és proposar un solució al sanejament de l’aigua en emplaçaments que es troben en situació d’emergència, més concretament, es planteja per utilitzar en camps de refugiats. El sistema s’ha dimensionat per tractar el cabal provinent de les aigües residuals domèstiques d’aquests camps. La selecció dels components i subsistemes de la EDAR ha estat feta en base a la cerca de solucions existents en el mercat. En cas que no existeixi cap alternativa al mercat que encaixi amb els paràmetres del dimensionament s’ha dissenyat de forma bàsica un subsistema que satisfaci els requeriments. La solució s’ha ideat per a que sigui modular i en cas de voler tractar un cabal superior al calculat simplement cal col·locar més sistemes en paral·lel. S’ha obtingut un sistema que per un cost de material inferior a 10 € per habitant equivalent és capaç de tractar un cabal amb elevada càrrega de contaminants obtenint un cabal que compleix estàndards legals de la UE. Les implicacions socials i ambientals que generaria la implantació d’aquest sistema anirien des de la creació de una petita industria que pot generar un desenvolupament econòmic local amb la gestió dels residus, fins a la generació d’una font d’energia renovable com el biogàs. La conclusió és que la EDAR proposada juntament amb un treball d’enginyeria més al detall generaria una solució que podria ser implantada en cas de necessitat. S’estima que els beneficis que suposaria la seva implantació ràpidament amortitzarien el cost de la EDAR. Aquests beneficis són per exemple l’estalvi en la despesa mèdica del camp a causa de la millora de la infraestructura o la reducció de contaminants al sòl i a l’aigua.

In an increasingly complex world of climate-related crises, migrations, and forced displacements, the study of spontaneous and temporary self-built settlements in harsh habitats may be of value to the architectural debate. The analysis of the Saharawi camps in the A lgerian desert presented here identifies recurrent typological patterns in both domestic and common spaces. The aim of this paper is to analyze these settlements as a structural form of habitation, framing them within the discourse of traditional architecture, while recognizing aspects of ephemerality and emergency provision. The method used was a spatial classification of housing units and settlements in order to identif y recurring typological patterns. Our results demonstrate the presence of such patterns and show that, even in precarious and developing situations, principles of traditional architecture apply. By encouraging these practices, we may improve the living conditions of those inhabiting temporary contexts, while also favoring practices that are more sustainable for the environment., Num mundo cada vez mais complexo de crises climáticas, migrações e deslocações forçadas, o estudo de povoações auto-construídas espontâneas e temporárias em ambientes hostis pode ser valioso para o debate arquitetónico. A análise dos acampamentos Saharauis, no deserto Argelino aqui apresentado, identifica padrões tipológicos recorrentes tanto nos espaços domésticos como nos espaços comuns. O objetivo deste artigo é analisar estas povoações como uma forma estrutural de habitação, enquadrando-as no discurso da arquitetura tradicional, ao mesmo tempo que se reconhecem aspetos de efemeridade e de provisão de emergência. O método utilizado foi a classificação espacial das unidades habitacionais e das povoações, de modo a identificar padrões tipológicos recorrentes. Os nossos resultados demonstram a presença de tais padrões e mostram que, mesmo em situações precárias e de desenvolvimento, os princípios da arquitetura tradicional se aplicam. Ao encorajar estas práticas, podemos melhorar as condições de vida das pessoas que habitam contextos temporários, favorecendo ao mesmo tempo práticas mais sustentáveis para o ambiente., En un mundo cada vez más complejo de crisis climáticas, migraciones y desplazamientos forzosos, el estudio de los asentamientos autoconstruidos, espontáneos y temporales en hábitats hostiles puede ser valioso para el debate arquitectónico. El análisis de los campamentos saharauis del desierto argelino presentado aquí identifica los modelos tipológicos recurrentes, tanto en los espacios domésticos como en los comunes. La finalidad de este artículo es analizar estos asentamientos como forma de alojamiento estructural, enmarcada en el discurso de la arquitectura tradicional, al tiempo que se reconocen los aspectos efímeros y de solución de emergencia. El método utilizado fue el de la clasificación espacial de las unidades habitacionales y los asentamientos para identificar los modelos tipológicos recurrentes. Los resultados demuestran la presencia de dichos modelos y cómo, incluso en situaciones precarias y cambiantes, se aplican en ellos los principios de la arquitectura tradicional. Al fomentar estas prácticas, quizás podamos mejorar las condiciones de vida de quienes habitan asentamientos temporales, al tiempo que favorecer actividades más sostenibles para el medio ambiente.

"Azraq refugee camp, built in 2014 and host to forty thousand refugees, is one of two official humanitarian refugee camps for Syrian refugees in Jordan. Time and Power in Azraq Refugee Camp investigates the relationship between time and power in Azraq, asking how a politics of time shapes, limits, or enables everyday life for the displaced and for aid workers. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, carried out during 2017-2018, the book challenges the perceptions of Azraq as the 'ideal' refugee camp. Melissa Gatter argues that the camp operates as a 'nine-to-five emergency' where mundane bureaucratic procedures serve to sustain a power system in which refugees are socialized to endure a cynical wait-both for everyday services and for their return-without expectations for a better outcome. Time and Power in Azraq Refugee Camp also explores how refugees navigate this system, both in the day-to-day and over years, by evaluating various layers of waiting as they affect refugee perceptions of time in the camp-not only in the present, but the past, near future, and far future. Far from an 'ideal' camp, Azraq and its politics of time constitute a cruel reality in which a power system meant to aid refugees is one that suppresses, foreclosing futures that it is supposed to preserve." --Provided by publisher., Includes bibliographical references and index., Introduction: Why Time? -- 1. Azraq's Emergency -- 2. A Humanitarian Bureaucracy -- 3. Preserving Order -- 4. Waiting for What? -- 5. Ordinary Futures -- Conclusion: Azraq in the Past Tense, "Azraq refugee camp, built in 2014 and host to forty thousand refugees, is one of two official humanitarian refugee camps for Syrian refugees in Jordan. Time and Power in Azraq Refugee Camp investigates the relationship between time and power in Azraq, asking how a politics of time shapes, limits, or enables everyday life for the displaced and for aid workers. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, carried out during 2017-2018, the book challenges the perceptions of Azraq as the 'ideal' refugee camp. Melissa Gatter argues that the camp operates as a 'nine-to-five emergency' where mundane bureaucratic procedures serve to sustain a power system in which refugees are socialized to endure a cynical wait-both for everyday services and for their return-without expectations for a better outcome. Time and Power in Azraq Refugee Camp also explores how refugees navigate this system, both in the day-to-day and over years, by evaluating various layers of waiting as they affect refugee perceptions of time in the camp-not only in the present, but the past, near future, and far future. Far from an 'ideal' camp, Azraq and its politics of time constitute a cruel reality in which a power system meant to aid refugees is one that suppresses, foreclosing futures that it is supposed to preserve." --Provided by publisher.

Aquest estudi tracta sobre el disseny d’un tipus de refugis que siguin modulars. Això vol dir que també han de ser fàcilment muntables, desmuntables i transportables per a que puguin ser traslladats a diferents campaments. Aquesta necessitat sorgeix de les dificultats que estan tenint molts refugiats ucraïnesos que han vingut a Catalunya degut a la guerra entre Ucraïna i Rússia. A l’inici d’aquesta, al voltant d’uns 53.000 refugiats ucraïnesos van arribar a Catalunya i, degut a la dificultat i manca d’ajudes per part dels governs central i autonòmics, només s’han pogut quedar al voltant de 20.000. La resta van haver de marxar ja que no es podien pagar lloguers de cap mena. Per això, aquest estudi també inclou la cerca d’un terreny a Catalunya on es pugui aixecar un campament de refugiats amb aquests refugis. Els refugis dissenyats en aquest estudi s’ha fet que siguin autosuficients energèticament degut a l’increment del preu de l’electricitat arreu del món. El fet de que siguin autosuficients també ajuda a que els refugis siguin més fàcils de col·locar als diferents campaments on puguin ser requerits.

Background: refugee children are children who have lost their homes, families, neighborhoods, and lifestyle routines and have moved to another country. They are at risk of mental health problems due to the traumatic experiences and stressors. 9 in 10 refugee children live in refugee camps in low and middle-income countries which have limited access to resources, services, and better living conditions. Four themes were identified as factors promoting children’s mental health in refugee camps. Positive relationships, education, access to health care services, and community support Methods: 274 articles were identified for this studying using the same search strings on all 5 selected databases (PsyINFO, Psychology database, Scopus, Pubmed, Sociological Abstract) 108 duplicates were removed, and the abstract and title screen was done for 166 articles. only 25 articles went through the full-text screening using specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. 7 articles were finally included in this study. Results: Results indicated that children feel happy, safe, and secure, and expressed positive behaviors when they are surrounded by quality family and peer relationships when they can have access to educational opportunities, and when they have a supportive and engaging community that provide them resources and recreational activities.

Background: refugee children are children who have lost their homes, families, neighborhoods, and lifestyle routines and have moved to another country. They are at risk of mental health problems due to the traumatic experiences and stressors. 9 in 10 refugee children live in refugee camps in low and middle-income countries which have limited access to resources, services, and better living conditions. Four themes were identified as factors promoting children’s mental health in refugee camps. Positive relationships, education, access to health care services, and community support Methods: 274 articles were identified for this studying using the same search strings on all 5 selected databases (PsyINFO, Psychology database, Scopus, Pubmed, Sociological Abstract) 108 duplicates were removed, and the abstract and title screen was done for 166 articles. only 25 articles went through the full-text screening using specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. 7 articles were finally included in this study. Results: Results indicated that children feel happy, safe, and secure, and expressed positive behaviors when they are surrounded by quality family and peer relationships when they can have access to educational opportunities, and when they have a supportive and engaging community that provide them resources and recreational activities.

Between 2018 and 2021, an average of around 400,000 children per year, were born into arefugee life. Infants account for almost half of alldeaths among children under the age of five, as a direct result of lack of support and knowledge throughout the pregnancy, during labour and thefirst days of a new-borns life. Due to the significant lack of staffing within refugee camps, midwives are required to train people living within the camp to support them during delivery and thus they are in need of equipment that can convey the complexities of labour and support the users to ensure proper understanding and expertise needed to facilitate complication-free labour. Not every birth in a camp results in a dire situation, but when they happen, complicationsare often a result of neglecting natural and basic human needs, resulting in preventable complications. Throughout this project, with the help of Brita-Stina Nordenstedt donation, I have researched what could be the reasoning behind this unsettling statistic, what optionsal ready exist, and in dialogue with midwifes who have worked in refugee camps, tried to envision a solution that could prevent certain complications from occurring in the first place.

Traces of the Holocaust in Sweden – including former refugee camps, cemeteries, schools, hospitals, etc. – can help to educate students and the wider public about the events of the Holocaust, its significance in Sweden in the past, and its relevance today. In my paper, I argue that ‘authentic sites’ of Nazi persecution – which are often regarded as the most pedagogically authoritative locations – are not only the places where the destruction and persecution were perpetrated (a conception that vests the power of authenticity with the perpetrators). Rather, I contend that ‘authenticity’ in relation to Nazi persecution (and the pedagogical potential carried with it) is conferred by the victims and survivors. ‘Authentic sites’ of Nazi persecution can thus be understood as sites of survival as well as destruction. As such, many ‘authentic sites’ of Nazi persecution exist in Sweden. Drawing on examples from my own and other scholars’ current research on places in Sweden where traces of the Holocaust may be found, as well as on grassroots efforts conducted by educators and activists, the paper explores, for example: theoretical and practical approaches to uncovering the significance of place and space; the potential of local history for teaching about broader, national and transnational histories of the Holocaust and Sweden’s complex connection with the Holocaust and its aftermath; and what can be or is already being done to enhance past and current efforts to educate the public about these important issues.

The refugee camps in the south of France after 1939 and their testimonies suggest that these camps were a test for the Nazi death camps. This essay analyzes the personal experience of the Catalan writer Agustí Bartra narrated in his first work during his Latin American exile: Cristo de 200.000 brazos [Christ of 200,000 Arms] (1958). From the biopolitical analysis of the novel, based on Giorgio Agamben's concepts of state of exception and homo sacer, this essay will observe how the camps are represented in Bartra’s novel in order to understand how they functioned. In addition, based on Bartra’s experience, "without reproducing it or recounting the circumstances with fidelity" (Codina 272), how the author describes life inside the camps and the relationships between eachother and with the outside. This essay will also pay attention to the boundaries of the camps, what they implied, if they could be easily crossed and what consequences prisioners had if they succeeded. The dehumanization of the individual appears in this essay from the “killable” concepts proposed by Agamben, the homo sacer. The French camps are the perfect setting to observe how the Agambian state of exception is applied, and how these become spaces of segregation and violation of the most basic human rights. This essay seeks to give a twist to the analysis of the literaturization of Bartra's testimony during his imprisonment in the French concentration camps. The second objective focuses on observing how those who were sheltered between the barbed wire fences and the beaches were dispossessed of their basic rights., Los campos de refugiados en el sur de Francia después de 1939 y sus testimonios incitan a pensar que fueron un ensayo para los campos de exterminio nazi. Este ensayo analiza la experiencia personal del escritor catalán Agustí Bartra narrada en su primera obra del exilio latinoamericano: Cristo de 200.000 brazos (1958). A partir del análisis biopolítico de la novela, que parte de los conceptos de estado de excepción y homo sacer de Giorgio Agamben, este ensayo observará cómo se representan los campos en la novela para así entender cómo funcionaban. Además, se describirá, a partir de la experiencia, pero “sin reproducirla ni relatar las circunstancias con fidelidad” (Codina 272), cómo Bartra describe la vida dentro de los campos y las relaciones existentes entre los presos y de estos con el exterior. Se observarán las fronteras del campo, qué implicaban, si se podían traspasar fácilmente y qué consecuencias tenían si lo lograban. La deshumanización del individuo parte en este ensayo del concepto de “matable”, del inglés killable, propuesto por Agamben, el homo sacer. Los campos franceses son el escenario perfecto para observar cómo se aplica el estado de excepción agambiano, y cómo estos devienen espacios de segregación y violación de los derechos humanos considerados más básicos. A partir de este ensayo, primero se busca dar una vuelta de tuerca al análisis a la literaturización del testimonio concentracionario de Bartra y, segundo, centrar el objetivo en observar cómo se despoja de los derechos básicos a los que se encuentran a cobijo entre las alambradas y las playas francesas

Between 2018 and 2021, an average of around 400,000 children per year, were born into arefugee life. Infants account for almost half of alldeaths among children under the age of five, as a direct result of lack of support and knowledge throughout the pregnancy, during labour and thefirst days of a new-borns life. Due to the significant lack of staffing within refugee camps, midwives are required to train people living within the camp to support them during delivery and thus they are in need of equipment that can convey the complexities of labour and support the users to ensure proper understanding and expertise needed to facilitate complication-free labour. Not every birth in a camp results in a dire situation, but when they happen, complicationsare often a result of neglecting natural and basic human needs, resulting in preventable complications. Throughout this project, with the help of Brita-Stina Nordenstedt donation, I have researched what could be the reasoning behind this unsettling statistic, what optionsal ready exist, and in dialogue with midwifes who have worked in refugee camps, tried to envision a solution that could prevent certain complications from occurring in the first place.

Even after arrival in new countries, refugees may be exposed to traumatic events. This state is exacerbated by contextual stressors, including the resettlement process, asylum proceedings and threats of deportation. This paper is rooted in a trauma-informed framework. We interviewed 16 male Syrian refugee migrant workers employed on a Jordanian farm during crop harvesting season to explore the quality and level of medical care and mental health services they received in light of the framework’s principal dimensions (e.g., safety, trust, intersectionality). We found that this vulnerable group of individuals is living a marginal and marginalized existence and depends on the goodwill of the growers for whom they work to treat them with a modicum of dignity and respect. Second, their itinerancy makes it difficult for this population to take advantage of available medical and mental health services at the nation’s major refugee camps. Finally, our interlocutors preferred their current lives, as isolating and limiting as they are, as superior to full-time residence in the camps, because they perceive their present way of life as according a measure of dignity, self-direction and autonomy they could not enjoy in the camps.

Almost half of the 79.5 million forcibly displaced persons worldwide are youth under the age of 18, including refugees. Refugee youth face deliberate threats across all migration stages including violence, abuse, exploitation, poor living conditions, limited or no access to healthcare and education, interrupted family structure, and discrimination. Noteworthy, school psychologists who practice in host countries face new challenges as these diverse youth enroll in public schools. During the migration stage, humanitarian workers are a primary source of psychosocial and educational support for refugee youth and their families. Therefore, the aim of this research study was to inform school psychology practice by exploring humanitarian workers’ perspectives on refugee youth’s mental health and resilience during the transit stage in Southeastern Europe. To accomplish this goal, I conducted a qualitative research study using an online sociodemographic survey, and semi-structured interviews with 12 humanitarian workers who directly supported refugee youth in Southeastern Europe. The trustworthy thematic analysis allowed to identify 10 themes of displacement-specific ecological protective factors, and 13 themes of challenges that contributed to refugee youth’s well-being. The key findings demonstrated that (1) humanitarian workers could either bolster refugee youth’s resilience or hinder their recovery from trauma, (2) participants’ responses were infused with Eurocentric bias, (3) the highest number of themes pertained to refugee youth’s distant environment) (4) refugee youth faced unique challenges while accessing public education due to family, cultural, and environmental factors, (5) and refugee youth’s individual protective factors focused on their ability to engage with the environment.

This thesis is a qualitative case study on greening policies in the Minawao Refugee Camp in far-northern Cameroon. It thoroughly investigates the actors and dynamics of humanitarian aid and specifically explores how environmental mainstreaming can shape humanitarian governance. The case was chosen due to its unique policies and programmes that aim to green the refugee camp and use a participatory approach to tackle the challenges. The concepts used throughout the thesis are humanitarian governance including both politicisation and de-politicisation aspects as well as clusterisation. A particular focus is placed on environmental mainstreaming. In addition, the humanitarian-development-peace nexus which plays an increasingly important role in shaping humanitarian aid is introduced and discussed. The theoretical framework is built upon these three concepts, humanitarian governance, environmental mainstreaming, and the humanitarian-developmentpeace nexus, as well as the dynamics between each other. A flexible qualitative research design is applied, using mixed methods for the data collection consisting of expert interviews and secondary data from reports and media. The collected data was coded and analysed using the “thematic analysis” method. The findings are divided in politicisation, de-politicisation, and clusterisation themes. The research confirms that environmental mainstreaming requires long-term planning, while humanitarian governance remains focused on immediate response to save lives and alleviate human suffering. Power dynamics, funding issues, and the involvement of governmental institutions lead frequently to disproportionate politicisation of humanitarian aid. However, ownership, resilience, and partnership help to de-politicise the process. Moreover, clusterisation allows for better coordination and helps to interlink humanitarian aid, development assistance, and environmental mainstreaming, leading to improved results and outcomes for the beneficiaries.

How is it possible to gain a sense that you have a voice and that your life matters when you have lost everything and live your life as a ‘displaced person’ in extreme precarity? We explore this question by examining the mundane everyday organizing practices of Syrian refugees living in tented settlements in Lebanon. Contrasting traditional empirical settings within organization studies where an already placed and mattering subject can be assumed, our context provides an opportunity to reveal how relations of recognition and mattering become constituted, and how subjects in precarious settings become enacted as such. Specifically, drawing on theories on the relational enactment of self and other, we show how material-discursive boundary-making and invitational practices – organizing a home, cooking and eating, and organizing a digital ‘home’ – function to enact relational host/guest subject positions. We also disclose how these guest/host relationalities create the conditions of possibility for the enactment of a subject that matters, and for the despair enacted in everyday precarious life to transform into ‘undefeated despair’.

How is it possible to gain a sense that you have a voice and that your life matters when you have lost everything and live your life as a ‘displaced person’ in extreme precarity? We explore this question by examining the mundane everyday organizing practices of Syrian refugees living in tented settlements in Lebanon. Contrasting traditional empirical settings within organization studies where an already placed and mattering subject can be assumed, our context provides an opportunity to reveal how relations of recognition and mattering become constituted, and how subjects in precarious settings become enacted as such. Specifically, drawing on theories on the relational enactment of self and other, we show how material-discursive boundary-making and invitational practices – organizing a home, cooking and eating, and organizing a digital ‘home’ – function to enact relational host/guest subject positions. We also disclose how these guest/host relationalities create the conditions of possibility for the enactment of a subject that matters, and for the despair enacted in everyday precarious life to transform into ‘undefeated despair’.

This paper explores refugees’ sense of agency on integration through digital literacy and the use of digital technologies in Kakuma refugee camp. The qualitative method involved content analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with 8 purposively sampled participants who reside in the camp. The analyses focused on the resources provided by mobile phone, computer and reading tablet and the life goals enabled by the technologies that enhance refugees’ sense of agency in integration. The findings show that most participants use mobile phone more often than computer and reading tablet. From the analyses, three life goals emerged; social relationship, effective task performance and recreation. The paper concludes that digital literacy and the enabled life goals provide opportunities for refugees to experience a sense of agency, belonging and wellbeing. Based on the findings, the paper recommends vocational training for refugees on the use of digital technologies to support integration with the global community and to help them achieve their life goals.

Aquest estudi tracta sobre el disseny d’un refugi per persones que han estat desplaçades dels seus habitatges a causa de conflictes o desastres naturals. Els refugis hauran de ser transportables per tal de ser reutilitzades en diferents campaments. A part, aquests refugis incorporaran una sèrie de millores davant els refugis utilitzats en l’actualitat. També s’estudia i decideix un sistema de distribució d’aquests per tal d’aconseguir un campament amb el nombre de persones que s’ha proposat. El disseny dels habitatges contempla distints requisits, tals com incorporar sistemes d’abastiment d’aigua i energia interns o generar energia renovable mitjançant el mòdul. Per tal d’obtindre l’objectiu s’estudien els millors materials per l’ús al qual dedicarem els mòduls, com incorporar els sistemes interns i també es farà una anàlisi estructural dels elements crítics per l’estabilitat del conjunt. En definitiva, l’estudi suggereix l’estructura i elements bàsics de l’habitatge dissenyat així com els sistemes necessaris al campament per a aconseguir que els subministres es distribueixin de forma adequada a cada un dels habitatges. Els resultats obtinguts són que un campament d’aquestes característiques, tot i ser molt més costós que un campament tradicional, aporta una millor distribució, més comoditats i intimitat als habitants. A més, el campament obtingut genera bona part de l’energia que consumeix i aprofita els recursos i espai disponible en gran manera., This study is about the design of a shelter for people who have been moved away from their home due to war or natural disasters. These shelters must be transportable to be reused in other camps. Apart from that, the shelters incorporate some improvements in front of the traditional shelters used nowadays. It is also studied and designed a distribution method, in order to obtain a camp able to refugee the amount of people that has been proposed. The shelter design studies different requirements as incorporating water and electricity supply systems in the shelter or generating electricity with the shelter. In order to accomplish the objective, the study analyses the most adequate materials for our purpose, the best way to implement the water and electrical systems within the building and a structural analysis of the critical resisting parts. To sum up, the document proposes the basic structure and elements of the shelter and the needed systems in the camp to be able to distribute the supplies. The obtained result is that a camp with these characteristics is very expensive in front of a typical one, but on the other hand, it provides the occupiers with more services, commodities, and a better distribution. The obtained camp provides most of the energy used from renewable resources and it takes advantage of all the resources and space.

L’elecció de la temàtica apareix per una inquietud personal que va sorgir a primer de carrera durant els grans moviments migratoris de sirians a Europa i l’aparició forçada de camps de refugiats. Veure com i on viuen, i pensar “com pot l’arquitectura millorar les condicions de vida d’aquest col·lectiu de persones”. Aquest treball mostra un estudi de 136 casos d’emergència del 2007 fins al 2021, que estan catalogats com a desastres de gran magnitud per Shelterprojects, una associació d’agències de caràcter mundial com l’Agència de l'ONU per als refugiats, l'Organització Mundial de la Migració i varies ONG. S’ha enfocat l’anàlisi a dues escales: una anàlisi a escala mundial i una anàlisi més profunda enfocada a la tipologia constructiva i el funcionament de quatre casos d’estudi en específic. A partir d’aquesta anàlisi trobem que en un 20,6% dels casos d’emergència es construeixen refugis de caràcter temporal que s’acaben convertint en permanents. Per altra banda també podem observar que un 50,5% d’aquests refugis tarden de mitjana tres mesos, des del moment inicial del desastre fins a la construcció del refugi. Finalment es proposa una síntesi d’estratègies amb la intenció d’influenciar i millorar aquests dos problemes anteriors.

Under våren och sommaren 1945 kom uppemot 31 000 överlevande från nazisternas förföljelse till Sverige för medicinsk behandling och rehabilitering. De anlände med Röda Korsets vita bussar och FN:s flyktingorgan United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administrations (UNRRA) vita skepp. Runt 40 procent av dem var polacker och minst en tredjedel var judar. Samtliga var i varierande grad fysiskt och psykiskt nedbrutna när de kom till Sverige. Svenska medier fylldes av beskrivningar av flyktingarnas anstötliga yttre. En svensk kommentator beskrev det som att de hade ”nedvärderats till djur”. För vissa var det ännu värre än så. Även om de polacker som kom till flyktinglägret i Öreryd var friska nog att flyttas från karantänhem och sjukhus var de långt ifrån ”återställda”. I själva verket hade de nyss påbörjat sin långa resa – fysiskt, känslomässigt och psykologiskt – bort från de grymheter som de själva, deras familjer och deras hemland hade utsatts för. Öreryd var liksom de andra svenska flyktinglägren bara ett kort uppehåll på överlevarnas resor från ett liv under nazistiskt förtryck till något nytt och ännu okänt., During the spring and summer of 1945, approximately 31,000 survivors of Nazi persecution came to Sweden for medical treatment and rehabilitation. They arrived in the White Buses of the Red Cross and the White Ships of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). Around 40 percent of them were Poles and at least a third were Jews. All of them were physically and mentally broken down to varying degrees when they came to Sweden. Swedish media were filled with descriptions of the refugees' shocking appearance. A Swedish commentator described them as having been "degraded to animals." For some it was even worse than that. Although the Poles who came to the refugee camp in Öreryd were healthy enough to be moved from quarantine and hospitals, they were far from "recovered." In fact, they had just begun their long journey – physically, emotionally and psychologically – away from the atrocities they, their families and their homeland had been subjected to. Öreryd, like the other Swedish refugee camps, was only a short stop on the survivors' journeys from a life under Nazi oppression to something new and as yet unknown.

This paper explores refugees’ sense of agency on integration through digital literacy and the use of digital technologies in Kakuma refugee camp. The qualitative method involved content analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with 8 purposively sampled participants who reside in the camp. The analyses focused on the resources provided by mobile phone, computer and reading tablet and the life goals enabled by the technologies that enhance refugees’ sense of agency in integration. The findings show that most participants use mobile phone more often than computer and reading tablet. From the analyses, three life goals emerged; social relationship, effective task performance and recreation. The paper concludes that digital literacy and the enabled life goals provide opportunities for refugees to experience a sense of agency, belonging and wellbeing. Based on the findings, the paper recommends vocational training for refugees on the use of digital technologies to support integration with the global community and to help them achieve their life goals.

This paper explores refugees’ sense of agency on integration through digital literacy and the use of digital technologies in Kakuma refugee camp. The qualitative method involved content analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with 8 purposively sampled participants who reside in the camp. The analyses focused on the resources provided by mobile phone, computer and reading tablet and the life goals enabled by the technologies that enhance refugees’ sense of agency in integration. The findings show that most participants use mobile phone more often than computer and reading tablet. From the analyses, three life goals emerged; social relationship, effective task performance and recreation. The paper concludes that digital literacy and the enabled life goals provide opportunities for refugees to experience a sense of agency, belonging and wellbeing. Based on the findings, the paper recommends vocational training for refugees on the use of digital technologies to support integration with the global community and to help them achieve their life goals.

This paper explores refugees’ sense of agency on integration through digital literacy and the use of digital technologies in Kakuma refugee camp. The qualitative method involved content analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with 8 purposively sampled participants who reside in the camp. The analyses focused on the resources provided by mobile phone, computer and reading tablet and the life goals enabled by the technologies that enhance refugees’ sense of agency in integration. The findings show that most participants use mobile phone more often than computer and reading tablet. From the analyses, three life goals emerged; social relationship, effective task performance and recreation. The paper concludes that digital literacy and the enabled life goals provide opportunities for refugees to experience a sense of agency, belonging and wellbeing. Based on the findings, the paper recommends vocational training for refugees on the use of digital technologies to support integration with the global community and to help them achieve their life goals.

This paper explores refugees’ sense of agency on integration through digital literacy and the use of digital technologies in Kakuma refugee camp. The qualitative method involved content analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with 8 purposively sampled participants who reside in the camp. The analyses focused on the resources provided by mobile phone, computer and reading tablet and the life goals enabled by the technologies that enhance refugees’ sense of agency in integration. The findings show that most participants use mobile phone more often than computer and reading tablet. From the analyses, three life goals emerged; social relationship, effective task performance and recreation. The paper concludes that digital literacy and the enabled life goals provide opportunities for refugees to experience a sense of agency, belonging and wellbeing. Based on the findings, the paper recommends vocational training for refugees on the use of digital technologies to support integration with the global community and to help them achieve their life goals.

This thesis is a qualitative case study on greening policies in the Minawao Refugee Camp in far-northern Cameroon. It thoroughly investigates the actors and dynamics of humanitarian aid and specifically explores how environmental mainstreaming can shape humanitarian governance. The case was chosen due to its unique policies and programmes that aim to green the refugee camp and use a participatory approach to tackle the challenges. The concepts used throughout the thesis are humanitarian governance including both politicisation and de-politicisation aspects as well as clusterisation. A particular focus is placed on environmental mainstreaming. In addition, the humanitarian-development-peace nexus which plays an increasingly important role in shaping humanitarian aid is introduced and discussed. The theoretical framework is built upon these three concepts, humanitarian governance, environmental mainstreaming, and the humanitarian-developmentpeace nexus, as well as the dynamics between each other. A flexible qualitative research design is applied, using mixed methods for the data collection consisting of expert interviews and secondary data from reports and media. The collected data was coded and analysed using the “thematic analysis” method. The findings are divided in politicisation, de-politicisation, and clusterisation themes. The research confirms that environmental mainstreaming requires long-term planning, while humanitarian governance remains focused on immediate response to save lives and alleviate human suffering. Power dynamics, funding issues, and the involvement of governmental institutions lead frequently to disproportionate politicisation of humanitarian aid. However, ownership, resilience, and partnership help to de-politicise the process. Moreover, clusterisation allows for better coordination and helps to interlink humanitarian aid, development assistance, and environmental mainstreaming, leading to improved results and outcomes for the beneficiaries.

Aquest projecte es presenta com una solució a l’augment del nombre de desplaçats a nivell global sense deixar de banda els seus drets i llibertats. Així mateix, campaments de refugiats com Ain al-Hilweh (al Líban) que es van exposar com a solucions temporals avui dia encara segueixen actius. És per totes aquestes raons que el projecte presenta unes característiques i dimensions idònies per a una estança correcte, a més de ser capaç de fer la seva posta en marxa en qualsevol localització gràcies a un sistema hidràulic que permet situar-ho en diferents terrenys i als materials empleats per a la seva construcció que són capaços de treballar sota condicions climatològiques adverses i brindar una llar als individus per a llargues estances. [1],[2] La incorporació en aquest d’un sistema basat en “trolleys” de càrrega permet disminuir la mida del mòdul per a facilitar el seu transport i, alhora, augmentar la seva superfície útil el doble. Endemés, aquest sistema evita la necessitat d’ús de maquinaria pesada per a desplegar el mòdul en la seva totalitat. També, s’han tingut en compte aspectes com la sostenibilitat, incorporant al mòdul la capacitat d’arribar entorn al 50% d’auto-eficiència energètica mitjançant un equip fotovoltaic aïllat i l’aprofitament d’aigües pluvials pel consum humà. Per a facilitar la tasca de la instal·lació d’aquests equips, es presenten preparats per a que les tasques a realitzar siguin senzilles i no requereixin de personal qualificat. Així mateix, es mostra un estudi de l’eficiència energètica que presenta el mòdul. Un altre aspecte important a tenir en compte és la salut mental dels individus que, després de viure certes situacions es veu molt afectada; per aquesta raó es presenta un disseny agradable i acollidor. Com a resultat tenim un mòdul que dignitat, ecologia, salut mental, benestar i aprofitament de l’espai, són els conceptes que el defineixen., This project is presented as a solution to the increasing number of displaced people globally without giving up their rights and freedoms. Furthermore, refugee camps such as Ain alHilweh (in Lebanon), which were presented as temporary solutions, are still operative. It is for all these reasons that the project presents the ideal characteristics and dimensions for a correct stay, as well as being able to be set up in any location thanks to a hydraulic system that allows it to be placed in different terrains and to the materials used for its construction, which are able to work in adverse weather conditions and to offer a place to live in for longer. [1],[2] The incorporation in this case of a system based on "trolleys" allows to diminish the size of the module to facilitate its transport and, now, to increase its useful surface of the double. In addition, this system avoids the need to use heavy machinery to deploy the module in its entirety. In addition, aspects such as sustainability have been taken into account, incorporating into the module the capacity to reach up to 50% energy self-efficiency through isolated photovoltaic equipment and the use of renewable energies for human consumption. To facilitate the task of installing this equipment, they are partially prepared so that the tasks to be carried out are simple and do not require qualified personnel. In addition, a study of the energy efficiency of the module is shown. Another important aspect to take into account is the mental health of the individuals, which, despite living certain situations, is greatly affected; for this reason, a pleasant and welcoming design is presented. As a result, we have a module in which dignity, ecology, mental health, wellbeing and the use of space are the concepts which define it.

L’objectiu d’aquest estudi és la investigació d’una solució constructiva digne i realista pel problema dels refugiats i els seus habitatges. En aquest sentit, es duu a terme una revisió de l’estat de l’art de la qüestió per a poder determinar les principals mancances i encerts de les metodologies actuals, tot investigant els materials constructius, els processos de muntatge i tot el que és relatiu al funcionament del camp. Després de realitzar aquesta dissertació, comparant les diferents solucions actuals, s’opta per la construcció en panells de palla. S’explica en detall quin és el procés constructiu, les diferents tècniques, les propietats mecàniques, aïllants, higroscòpiques, etc. Un cop clarificat l’estudi referent als panells de palla, es duu a terme el disseny del camp de refugiats, basant-se en la idea de les unitats; la unió de 4 mòduls dormitori,1 mòdul cuina-menjador i 1 mòdul lavabo, en els quals les zones comunes són compartides per les famílies. Aquestes unitats que integren el camp estan disposades de manera que formen un hexàgon, a dins del qual s’hi troben les zones comunes: ambulatori, sala polivalent, aules escola i sala rentadores. També s’investiga sobre les diferents instal·lacions que s’han d’implementar per tal que el camp funcioni; fent especial èmfasi en la instal·lació elèctrica i la instal·lació d’aigua calenta sanitària. S’utilitza l’eina REVIT per a modelar tant el disseny del camp com el de les instal·lacions, i es presenta un document de plànols on apareixen les vistes pertinents. De tota la recerca realitzada, s’extreu que la construcció que podríem anomenar alternativa, com la dels panells de palla i d’altres, té molt recorregut en aquest tipus d’habitatge i representa una solució molt més digna que les que existeixen actualment, amb un cost lleugerament major però molta més durabilitat., The aim of this study is to investigate a decent and realistic constructive methodology for refugee’s homes. A revision of the state of the art is tackled to determine the main shortcomings and successes of the actual methodologies, doing some research in constructive materials, assembly process and everything relating the operation of the camp. After completing this dissertation, comparing the nowadays solutions, the straw bale construction Is selected. A widespread explanation is taken on to approach the building process, different techniques, mechanical properties, isolating, hygroscopic, etc. Once the study has clarified all these issues, the refugee camp design Is enhanced, based on the unit’s idea; the union of 4-bedroom modules, 1 kitchen module and a bathroom module, in which common areas are shared by the families. These said units that integrate the camp are disposed in a hexagonal perimeter, where inside of it the common areas can be found, such as ambulatory, school area, common room and the laundry. Furthermore, installation investigation Is also approached, taking special attention to detail in electrical and hot water installations. The software REVIT is used to create the installation blueprints and all the different plant views of the camp and its specific units. Of all research conducted, the main extracted conclusion is that alternative construction, as straw bale construction and others, is perfectly competent to work in these kinds of houses and represents a much better solution to the actual ones, with a slightly elevated cost but with a longer durability.

Estudi i disseny de mòduls habitables destinats a zones de refugiats, persones afectades per desastres ambientals o conflictes bèl·lics, que siguin obligades a traslladar-se del seu domicili de manera temporal o permanent. Les cèl·lules habitables seran dotades de tots els serveis necessaris per complir amb les necessitats vitals, dissenyades per garantir una fàcil fabricació, transport i muntatge. La finalitat de les cèl·lules és agrupar-se i utilitzar-se de manera conjunta per formar una microciutat que garanteixi els serveis necessaris per acollir a un cert nombre de persones. L'estudi serà orientat per tal de garantir una despesa mínima de fabricació i de manteniment de les persones afectades. D’aquesta manera es pretén ajustar el pressupost per tal d’abastir el màxim nombre de refugiats sempre tenint en compte l’optimització dels recursos energètics., Study and design of living modules for refugee areas, people affected by environmental disasters or war conflicts, who are forced to move from their homes temporarily or permanently. The living cells will be equipped with all the necessary services to meet the vital needs, designed to ensure easy manufacture, transport and assembly. The purpose of the cells is to group together and use them together to form a micro-city that guarantees the services needed to accommodate a certain number of people. The study will be aimed at ensuring a minimum cost of manufacturing and maintenance for those affected. The aim is to adjust the budget in order to supply the maximum number of refugees, always taking into account the optimization of energy resources., Estudio y diseño de módulos habitables destinados a zonas de refugiados, personas afectadas por desastres ambientales o conflictos bélicos, que sean obligadas a trasladarse de su domicilio de forma temporal o permanente. Las células habitables serán dotadas de todos los servicios necesarios para cumplir con las necesidades vitales, diseñadas para garantizar una fácil fabricación, transporte y montaje. La finalidad de las células es agruparse y utilizarse de forma conjunta para formar una microciudad que garantice los servicios necesarios para acoger a un cierto número de personas. El estudio estará orientado para garantizar un gasto mínimo de fabricación y mantenimiento de las personas afectadas. De esta forma se pretende ajustar el presupuesto para abastecer al máximo número de refugiados siempre teniendo en cuenta la optimización de los recursos energéticos.

How is it possible to gain a sense that you have a voice and that your life matters when you have lost everything and live your life as a ‘displaced person’ in extreme precarity? We explore this question by examining the mundane everyday organizing practices of Syrian refugees living in tented settlements in Lebanon. Contrasting traditional empirical settings within organization studies where an already placed and mattering subject can be assumed, our context provides an opportunity to reveal how relations of recognition and mattering become constituted, and how subjects in precarious settings become enacted as such. Specifically, drawing on theories on the relational enactment of self and other, we show how material-discursive boundary-making and invitational practices – organizing a home, cooking and eating, and organizing a digital ‘home’ – function to enact relational host/guest subject positions. We also disclose how these guest/host relationalities create the conditions of possibility for the enactment of a subject that matters, and for the despair enacted in everyday precarious life to transform into ‘undefeated despair’.

How is it possible to gain a sense that you have a voice and that your life matters when you have lost everything and live your life as a ‘displaced person’ in extreme precarity? We explore this question by examining the mundane everyday organizing practices of Syrian refugees living in tented settlements in Lebanon. Contrasting traditional empirical settings within organization studies where an already placed and mattering subject can be assumed, our context provides an opportunity to reveal how relations of recognition and mattering become constituted, and how subjects in precarious settings become enacted as such. Specifically, drawing on theories on the relational enactment of self and other, we show how material-discursive boundary-making and invitational practices – organizing a home, cooking and eating, and organizing a digital ‘home’ – function to enact relational host/guest subject positions. We also disclose how these guest/host relationalities create the conditions of possibility for the enactment of a subject that matters, and for the despair enacted in everyday precarious life to transform into ‘undefeated despair’.

How is it possible to gain a sense that you have a voice and that your life matters when you have lost everything and live your life as a ‘displaced person’ in extreme precarity? We explore this question by examining the mundane everyday organizing practices of Syrian refugees living in tented settlements in Lebanon. Contrasting traditional empirical settings within organization studies where an already placed and mattering subject can be assumed, our context provides an opportunity to reveal how relations of recognition and mattering become constituted, and how subjects in precarious settings become enacted as such. Specifically, drawing on theories on the relational enactment of self and other, we show how material-discursive boundary-making and invitational practices – organizing a home, cooking and eating, and organizing a digital ‘home’ – function to enact relational host/guest subject positions. We also disclose how these guest/host relationalities create the conditions of possibility for the enactment of a subject that matters, and for the despair enacted in everyday precarious life to transform into ‘undefeated despair’.

Contemporary migration infrastructures commonly reflect imaginaries of technological solutionism. Fantasies of efficient ordering, administrating and limiting of refugee bodies in space and time through migration infrastructures are distinctive, but not novel as they draw on long historical lineages. Drawing on archival records, we present a case-study on post-World-War-II refugee encampments. By highlighting the deeply historical role of media in migration governance, i.e. the act of mediation through technological infrastructuring, we seek to bring together the fields of migration studies and media studies. We argue that this cross-fertilization helps to historically untangle power dimensions, inherent workings, as well as human experiences imbued in the tech-based management of migration ‘crises’. Uncovering historical underpinnings of digitalized asylum regimes through the prism of media infrastructures, and socio-technical imaginaries surrounding them, points at continuities and genealogies of containing and managing people in time and space, reaching into technologies of colonial and fascist projects. We thus seek to explore the assumptions that drive the build-up of migration and media infrastructures: How are migrants, camps, media and their infrastructural interrelations imagined? Which cultural horizons are reflected in technologies, which functions are imagined for whom, and how are utilitarian ideas about humanitarianism and migration control embedded?

[ES] El campo de refugiados de Shimelba, situado en la región de Tigray, Etiopía, acoge hoy en día alrededor de 7.000 refugiados. Surge en 2004, tras la guerra entre Eritrea y Etiopía ya que miles de eritreos huyen del país por las continuas violaciones producidas a los derechos humanos. El funcionamiento del campo durante 16 años ha permitido establecer unas condiciones de vida y unos equipamientos mejores que la comunidad de acogida, facilitados por las ayudas humanitarias. Por esta razón cierta población etíope procedente de las zonas rurales se establece como asentamiento colindante alrededor del campo. El proyecto ¿cuerdas¿, surge de la necesidad de una respuesta de regeneración urbana, ante la situación inadecuada e insostenible de la dependencia de ayudas humanitarias durante tantos años, de modo que los refugiados comiencen a incorporarse en la economía etíope por medio de una cadena de trabajo de fabricación y construcción con cuerdas y materiales locales, espacios públicos de descanso y relación social, además de la mejora de seguridad de las mujeres (colectivo más vulnerable en el campo), mediante alumbrado público y una mejora de los servicios de salubridad comunitaria. Por último, la proyección de una escuela-taller para la formación y el desarrollo de estas técnicas, con el objetivo de la integración a todos los colectivos posibles dentro del campo., [EN] Shimelba refugee camp, located in the Tigray region, Ethiopia, it weolcome around 7.000 refugees nowdays. It arise in 2004, after Eritrea and Ethiopia war as thousand of eritrean people run away due to perpetual violations produced to human rights. The camp performance along 16 years has allowed construct better equipments and service than its host community, facilitated by humanitarian aids. By this reason, a bit ethiope poblation from rural areas are entablished as neighboring stellement around the camp. The ¿ropes¿ proyect, it arise as a answer necesity of urban regenaration , by the inadequate and untenable dependency situation of humanitarian aids by so many years, so that refugees start to join in the ethiope economic life by a work chain of fabrication and construction with ropes and local materials, also with social relationship public space, in adittion to the women security improvement (the most vulnerable camp group), by public lighting and the community salubrity service improvement. By last, a school-workshop proyection for the education and develop techniques, as objective of all groups integration inside of the camp., [CA] El camp de refugiats de Shimelba, situat a la regió de Tigray, Etiòpia, acull hui dia al voltant de 7.000 refugiats. Sorgeix en 2004, després de la guerra entre Eritrea i Etiòpia ja que milers d’eritreus fugen del país per les contínues violacions produïdes als drets humans. El funcionament del camp durant 16 anys ha permés establir unes condicions de vida i uns equipaments millors que la comunitat d’acolliment, facilitats per les ajudes humanitàries. Per aquesta raó certa població etíop procedent de les zones rurals s’estableix com a assentament confrontant al voltant del camp. El projecte “cordes”, sorgeix de la necessitat d’una resposta de regeneració urbana, davant la situació inadequada i insostenible de la dependència d’ajudes humanitàries durant tants anys, de manera que els refugiats comencen a incorporar-se en l’economia etíop per mitjà d’una cadena de treball de fabricació i construcció amb cordes i materials locals, espais públics de descans i relació social, a més de la millora de seguretat de les dones (col·lectiu més vulnerable en el camp), mitjançant enllumenat públic i una millora dels serveis de salubritat comunitària. Finalment, la projecció d’una escola-taller per a la formació i el desenvolupament d’aquestes tècniques, amb l’objectiu de la integració a tots els col·lectius possibles dins del camp.

[ES] El campo de refugiados de Shimelba, situado en la región de Tigray, Etiopía, acoge hoy en día alrededor de 7.000 refugiados. Surge en 2004, tras la guerra entre Eritrea y Etiopía ya que miles de eritreos huyen del país por las continuas violaciones producidas a los derechos humanos. El funcionamiento del campo durante 16 años ha permitido establecer unas condiciones de vida y unos equipamientos mejores que la comunidad de acogida, facilitados por las ayudas humanitarias. Por esta razón cierta población etíope procedente de las zonas rurales se establece como asentamiento colindante alrededor del campo. El proyecto ¿cuerdas¿, surge de la necesidad de una respuesta de regeneración urbana, ante la situación inadecuada e insostenible de la dependencia de ayudas humanitarias durante tantos años, de modo que los refugiados comiencen a incorporarse en la economía etíope por medio de una cadena de trabajo de fabricación y construcción con cuerdas y materiales locales, espacios públicos de descanso y relación social, además de la mejora de seguridad de las mujeres (colectivo más vulnerable en el campo), mediante alumbrado público y una mejora de los servicios de salubridad comunitaria. Por último, la proyección de una escuela-taller para la formación y el desarrollo de estas técnicas, con el objetivo de la integración a todos los colectivos posibles dentro del campo., [EN] Shimelba refugee camp, located in the Tigray region, Ethiopia, it weolcome around 7.000 refugees nowdays. It arise in 2004, after Eritrea and Ethiopia war as thousand of eritrean people run away due to perpetual violations produced to human rights. The camp performance along 16 years has allowed construct better equipments and service than its host community, facilitated by humanitarian aids. By this reason, a bit ethiope poblation from rural areas are entablished as neighboring stellement around the camp. The ¿ropes¿ proyect, it arise as a answer necesity of urban regenaration , by the inadequate and untenable dependency situation of humanitarian aids by so many years, so that refugees start to join in the ethiope economic life by a work chain of fabrication and construction with ropes and local materials, also with social relationship public space, in adittion to the women security improvement (the most vulnerable camp group), by public lighting and the community salubrity service improvement. By last, a school-workshop proyection for the education and develop techniques, as objective of all groups integration inside of the camp., [CA] El camp de refugiats de Shimelba, situat a la regió de Tigray, Etiòpia, acull hui dia al voltant de 7.000 refugiats. Sorgeix en 2004, després de la guerra entre Eritrea i Etiòpia ja que milers d’eritreus fugen del país per les contínues violacions produïdes als drets humans. El funcionament del camp durant 16 anys ha permés establir unes condicions de vida i uns equipaments millors que la comunitat d’acolliment, facilitats per les ajudes humanitàries. Per aquesta raó certa població etíop procedent de les zones rurals s’estableix com a assentament confrontant al voltant del camp. El projecte “cordes”, sorgeix de la necessitat d’una resposta de regeneració urbana, davant la situació inadequada i insostenible de la dependència d’ajudes humanitàries durant tants anys, de manera que els refugiats comencen a incorporar-se en l’economia etíop per mitjà d’una cadena de treball de fabricació i construcció amb cordes i materials locals, espais públics de descans i relació social, a més de la millora de seguretat de les dones (col·lectiu més vulnerable en el camp), mitjançant enllumenat públic i una millora dels serveis de salubritat comunitària. Finalment, la projecció d’una escola-taller per a la formació i el desenvolupament d’aquestes tècniques, amb l’objectiu de la integració a tots els col·lectius possibles dins del camp.

[ES] El campo de refugiados de Shimelba, situado en la región de Tigray, Etiopía, acoge hoy en día alrededor de 7.000 refugiados. Surge en 2004, tras la guerra entre Eritrea y Etiopía ya que miles de eritreos huyen del país por las continuas violaciones producidas a los derechos humanos. El funcionamiento del campo durante 16 años ha permitido establecer unas condiciones de vida y unos equipamientos mejores que la comunidad de acogida, facilitados por las ayudas humanitarias. Por esta razón cierta población etíope procedente de las zonas rurales se establece como asentamiento colindante alrededor del campo. El proyecto ¿cuerdas¿, surge de la necesidad de una respuesta de regeneración urbana, ante la situación inadecuada e insostenible de la dependencia de ayudas humanitarias durante tantos años, de modo que los refugiados comiencen a incorporarse en la economía etíope por medio de una cadena de trabajo de fabricación y construcción con cuerdas y materiales locales, espacios públicos de descanso y relación social, además de la mejora de seguridad de las mujeres (colectivo más vulnerable en el campo), mediante alumbrado público y una mejora de los servicios de salubridad comunitaria. Por último, la proyección de una escuela-taller para la formación y el desarrollo de estas técnicas, con el objetivo de la integración a todos los colectivos posibles dentro del campo., [EN] Shimelba refugee camp, located in the Tigray region, Ethiopia, it weolcome around 7.000 refugees nowdays. It arise in 2004, after Eritrea and Ethiopia war as thousand of eritrean people run away due to perpetual violations produced to human rights. The camp performance along 16 years has allowed construct better equipments and service than its host community, facilitated by humanitarian aids. By this reason, a bit ethiope poblation from rural areas are entablished as neighboring stellement around the camp. The ¿ropes¿ proyect, it arise as a answer necesity of urban regenaration , by the inadequate and untenable dependency situation of humanitarian aids by so many years, so that refugees start to join in the ethiope economic life by a work chain of fabrication and construction with ropes and local materials, also with social relationship public space, in adittion to the women security improvement (the most vulnerable camp group), by public lighting and the community salubrity service improvement. By last, a school-workshop proyection for the education and develop techniques, as objective of all groups integration inside of the camp., [CA] El camp de refugiats de Shimelba, situat a la regió de Tigray, Etiòpia, acull hui dia al voltant de 7.000 refugiats. Sorgeix en 2004, després de la guerra entre Eritrea i Etiòpia ja que milers d’eritreus fugen del país per les contínues violacions produïdes als drets humans. El funcionament del camp durant 16 anys ha permés establir unes condicions de vida i uns equipaments millors que la comunitat d’acolliment, facilitats per les ajudes humanitàries. Per aquesta raó certa població etíop procedent de les zones rurals s’estableix com a assentament confrontant al voltant del camp. El projecte “cordes”, sorgeix de la necessitat d’una resposta de regeneració urbana, davant la situació inadequada i insostenible de la dependència d’ajudes humanitàries durant tants anys, de manera que els refugiats comencen a incorporar-se en l’economia etíop per mitjà d’una cadena de treball de fabricació i construcció amb cordes i materials locals, espais públics de descans i relació social, a més de la millora de seguretat de les dones (col·lectiu més vulnerable en el camp), mitjançant enllumenat públic i una millora dels serveis de salubritat comunitària. Finalment, la projecció d’una escola-taller per a la formació i el desenvolupament d’aquestes tècniques, amb l’objectiu de la integració a tots els col·lectius possibles dins del camp.

[ES] El campo de refugiados de Shimelba, situado en la región de Tigray, Etiopía, acoge hoy en día alrededor de 7.000 refugiados. Surge en 2004, tras la guerra entre Eritrea y Etiopía ya que miles de eritreos huyen del país por las continuas violaciones producidas a los derechos humanos. El funcionamiento del campo durante 16 años ha permitido establecer unas condiciones de vida y unos equipamientos mejores que la comunidad de acogida, facilitados por las ayudas humanitarias. Por esta razón cierta población etíope procedente de las zonas rurales se establece como asentamiento colindante alrededor del campo. El proyecto ¿cuerdas¿, surge de la necesidad de una respuesta de regeneración urbana, ante la situación inadecuada e insostenible de la dependencia de ayudas humanitarias durante tantos años, de modo que los refugiados comiencen a incorporarse en la economía etíope por medio de una cadena de trabajo de fabricación y construcción con cuerdas y materiales locales, espacios públicos de descanso y relación social, además de la mejora de seguridad de las mujeres (colectivo más vulnerable en el campo), mediante alumbrado público y una mejora de los servicios de salubridad comunitaria. Por último, la proyección de una escuela-taller para la formación y el desarrollo de estas técnicas, con el objetivo de la integración a todos los colectivos posibles dentro del campo., [EN] Shimelba refugee camp, located in the Tigray region, Ethiopia, it weolcome around 7.000 refugees nowdays. It arise in 2004, after Eritrea and Ethiopia war as thousand of eritrean people run away due to perpetual violations produced to human rights. The camp performance along 16 years has allowed construct better equipments and service than its host community, facilitated by humanitarian aids. By this reason, a bit ethiope poblation from rural areas are entablished as neighboring stellement around the camp. The ¿ropes¿ proyect, it arise as a answer necesity of urban regenaration , by the inadequate and untenable dependency situation of humanitarian aids by so many years, so that refugees start to join in the ethiope economic life by a work chain of fabrication and construction with ropes and local materials, also with social relationship public space, in adittion to the women security improvement (the most vulnerable camp group), by public lighting and the community salubrity service improvement. By last, a school-workshop proyection for the education and develop techniques, as objective of all groups integration inside of the camp., [CA] El camp de refugiats de Shimelba, situat a la regió de Tigray, Etiòpia, acull hui dia al voltant de 7.000 refugiats. Sorgeix en 2004, després de la guerra entre Eritrea i Etiòpia ja que milers d’eritreus fugen del país per les contínues violacions produïdes als drets humans. El funcionament del camp durant 16 anys ha permés establir unes condicions de vida i uns equipaments millors que la comunitat d’acolliment, facilitats per les ajudes humanitàries. Per aquesta raó certa població etíop procedent de les zones rurals s’estableix com a assentament confrontant al voltant del camp. El projecte “cordes”, sorgeix de la necessitat d’una resposta de regeneració urbana, davant la situació inadequada i insostenible de la dependència d’ajudes humanitàries durant tants anys, de manera que els refugiats comencen a incorporar-se en l’economia etíop per mitjà d’una cadena de treball de fabricació i construcció amb cordes i materials locals, espais públics de descans i relació social, a més de la millora de seguretat de les dones (col·lectiu més vulnerable en el camp), mitjançant enllumenat públic i una millora dels serveis de salubritat comunitària. Finalment, la projecció d’una escola-taller per a la formació i el desenvolupament d’aquestes tècniques, amb l’objectiu de la integració a tots els col·lectius possibles dins del camp.

In a world of rapidly rising numbers of forcibly displaced people, most refugee/IDP camps are designed as short-term shelter facility when no alternative is available. However, the average time a United Nations (UN) planned refugee camp functions, is seventeen years. This temporal disparity is not necessarily a problem on its own, however during these protracted situations the need for normalcy, perspective and especially dignity grows. Besides a reduced level of livability, a lack of dignity also leads to both physical and psychological health issues. This leads to the main aim of this project, namely, to enhance dignity in planned camps. Taking the mandate of the UNHCR into account, the focus will be on UNHCR planned refugee camps. Based on a literature review conducted in the theoretical framework, the premise of this graduation project is that dignity is positively influenced by self-determination, which in turn is enhanced by spatial self-determination and (informal) economic activity in a situation where first needs (e.g. food, water, shelter) are met. This results in the main research question: “How can a modular framework of interventions enhance a sense of spatial self-determination and foster (informal) economic activity in UNHCR planned refugee camps while maintaining a non-permanent character and remaining adaptable to scale changes?”. This question will be answered through eight sub-questions that reflect the different phases of the iterative ‘analysis-design process’ of this project. In this process four methods will be used to answer these questions by providing insight in the involved concepts, current practices and how (informal) economic activity and/or spatial self-determination is improved in other (urban) contexts. These methods are: a literature review, a best case review, interviewing and a multiple case study (using the Syrian Conflict as umbrella case). The final product of this graduation project will consist of two perspecti, Architecture, Urbanism and Building Sciences | Urbanism

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, far-reaching measures were introduced to isolate people and reduce the chance of transmission among people. In the Rohingya refugee camps in Bangladesh, the camps were locked down for months. As a result, economic dependencies between the refugees and host communities which were built in previous decades were cut-off for months. So far, no research has been published on how to release the burden of limited refugee-host interactions, which can be a vital source of livelihood generation. In this research, the implementation of different vaccine allocation strategies were analysed and compared, to analyse what prioritization strategy can best be introduced to most effectively revive these interactions and control the COVID-19 outbreak. Results show that either prioritizing elderly or high-risk transmission groups can be effective. Prioritizing elderly distinguishes itself as it most effectively reduces severely & critically symptomatic infections. Prioritizing transmission-groups shows maximize refugee-host interactions. When combining both strategies with a dynamic approach of opening/closing the camp from host communities, a more effective strategy is possible for protecting the vital economic functions of an open-system refugee camp. An implication of this research is reflected by the granularity of the model. As the model has a high resolution and is highly computational, insufficient model experiments could be conducted to cover a complete solution space of the model. However, as this research proposes unique study in the dynamics between vaccine allocation and open-system refugee camp, a foundation is grounded for further research., Engineering and Policy Analysis

BACKGROUND: School-based violence prevention interventions offer enormous potential to reduce children's experience of violence perpetrated by teachers, but few have been rigorously evaluated globally and, to the best of our knowledge, none in humanitarian settings. We tested whether the EmpaTeach intervention could reduce physical violence from teachers to students in Nyarugusu Refugee Camp, Tanzania.METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a 2-arm cluster-randomised controlled trial with parallel assignment. A complete sample of all 27 primary and secondary schools in Nyarugusu Refugee Camp were approached and agreed to participate in the study. Eligible students and teachers participated in cross-sectional baseline, midline, and endline surveys in November/December 2018, May/June 2019, and January/February 2020, respectively. Fourteen schools were randomly assigned to receive a violence prevention intervention targeted at teachers implemented in January-March 2019; 13 formed a wait-list control group. The EmpaTeach intervention used empathy-building exercises and group work to equip teachers with self-regulation, alternative discipline techniques, and classroom management strategies. Allocation was not concealed due to the nature of the intervention. The primary outcome was students' self-reported experience of physical violence from teachers, assessed at midline using a modified version of the ISPCAN Child Abuse Screening Tool-Child Institutional. Secondary outcomes included student reports of emotional violence, depressive symptoms, and school attendance. Analyses were by intention to treat, using generalised estimating equations adjusted for stratification factors. No schools left the study. In total, 1,493 of the 1,866 (80%) randomly sampled students approached for participation took part in the baseline survey; at baseline 54.1% of students reported past-week physical violence from school staff. In total, 1,619 of 1,978 students (81.9%) took part in the

In a world of rapidly rising numbers of forcibly displaced people, most refugee/IDP camps are designed as short-term shelter facility when no alternative is available. However, the average time a United Nations (UN) planned refugee camp functions, is seventeen years. This temporal disparity is not necessarily a problem on its own, however during these protracted situations the need for normalcy, perspective and especially dignity grows. Besides a reduced level of livability, a lack of dignity also leads to both physical and psychological health issues. This leads to the main aim of this project, namely, to enhance dignity in planned camps. Taking the mandate of the UNHCR into account, the focus will be on UNHCR planned refugee camps. Based on a literature review conducted in the theoretical framework, the premise of this graduation project is that dignity is positively influenced by self-determination, which in turn is enhanced by spatial self-determination and (informal) economic activity in a situation where first needs (e.g. food, water, shelter) are met. This results in the main research question: “How can a modular framework of interventions enhance a sense of spatial self-determination and foster (informal) economic activity in UNHCR planned refugee camps while maintaining a non-permanent character and remaining adaptable to scale changes?”. This question will be answered through eight sub-questions that reflect the different phases of the iterative ‘analysis-design process’ of this project. In this process four methods will be used to answer these questions by providing insight in the involved concepts, current practices and how (informal) economic activity and/or spatial self-determination is improved in other (urban) contexts. These methods are: a literature review, a best case review, interviewing and a multiple case study (using the Syrian Conflict as umbrella case). The final product of this graduation project will consist of two perspecti, Architecture, Urbanism and Building Sciences | Urbanism

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, far-reaching measures were introduced to isolate people and reduce the chance of transmission among people. In the Rohingya refugee camps in Bangladesh, the camps were locked down for months. As a result, economic dependencies between the refugees and host communities which were built in previous decades were cut-off for months. So far, no research has been published on how to release the burden of limited refugee-host interactions, which can be a vital source of livelihood generation. In this research, the implementation of different vaccine allocation strategies were analysed and compared, to analyse what prioritization strategy can best be introduced to most effectively revive these interactions and control the COVID-19 outbreak. Results show that either prioritizing elderly or high-risk transmission groups can be effective. Prioritizing elderly distinguishes itself as it most effectively reduces severely & critically symptomatic infections. Prioritizing transmission-groups shows maximize refugee-host interactions. When combining both strategies with a dynamic approach of opening/closing the camp from host communities, a more effective strategy is possible for protecting the vital economic functions of an open-system refugee camp. An implication of this research is reflected by the granularity of the model. As the model has a high resolution and is highly computational, insufficient model experiments could be conducted to cover a complete solution space of the model. However, as this research proposes unique study in the dynamics between vaccine allocation and open-system refugee camp, a foundation is grounded for further research., Engineering and Policy Analysis

BACKGROUND: School-based violence prevention interventions offer enormous potential to reduce children's experience of violence perpetrated by teachers, but few have been rigorously evaluated globally and, to the best of our knowledge, none in humanitarian settings. We tested whether the EmpaTeach intervention could reduce physical violence from teachers to students in Nyarugusu Refugee Camp, Tanzania.METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a 2-arm cluster-randomised controlled trial with parallel assignment. A complete sample of all 27 primary and secondary schools in Nyarugusu Refugee Camp were approached and agreed to participate in the study. Eligible students and teachers participated in cross-sectional baseline, midline, and endline surveys in November/December 2018, May/June 2019, and January/February 2020, respectively. Fourteen schools were randomly assigned to receive a violence prevention intervention targeted at teachers implemented in January-March 2019; 13 formed a wait-list control group. The EmpaTeach intervention used empathy-building exercises and group work to equip teachers with self-regulation, alternative discipline techniques, and classroom management strategies. Allocation was not concealed due to the nature of the intervention. The primary outcome was students' self-reported experience of physical violence from teachers, assessed at midline using a modified version of the ISPCAN Child Abuse Screening Tool-Child Institutional. Secondary outcomes included student reports of emotional violence, depressive symptoms, and school attendance. Analyses were by intention to treat, using generalised estimating equations adjusted for stratification factors. No schools left the study. In total, 1,493 of the 1,866 (80%) randomly sampled students approached for participation took part in the baseline survey; at baseline 54.1% of students reported past-week physical violence from school staff. In total, 1,619 of 1,978 students (81.9%) took part in the

This article explores mediated memory practices in refugee camps in post-war Germany. Inresponse to refugees experiencing a disjuncture of temporality materialized in the liminalspace of the refugee camp, the article argues that media practices of camp residents includepractices of remembering and witnessing. Drawing on memory studies, media practicesare understood as forms of “management of change” and “mediated witnessing”, enactingcultural and diasporic memory, as well as providing opportunities to remember, store thepresent and give witness to one’s plight. Based on an analysis of archival records from campstructures in Germany (1945–1955), examples of mnemonic media practices are analyzed.Concludingly, the article argues that mediated memory in refugee camps is characterizedby an ambiguity of “hopeful” and “obligatory” memory, affected by structures and controlof media and mnemonic activities, as well as agency and initiatives to remember and creatememories from below.

This article explores mediated memory practices in refugee camps in post-war Germany. Inresponse to refugees experiencing a disjuncture of temporality materialized in the liminalspace of the refugee camp, the article argues that media practices of camp residents includepractices of remembering and witnessing. Drawing on memory studies, media practicesare understood as forms of “management of change” and “mediated witnessing”, enactingcultural and diasporic memory, as well as providing opportunities to remember, store thepresent and give witness to one’s plight. Based on an analysis of archival records from campstructures in Germany (1945–1955), examples of mnemonic media practices are analyzed.Concludingly, the article argues that mediated memory in refugee camps is characterizedby an ambiguity of “hopeful” and “obligatory” memory, affected by structures and controlof media and mnemonic activities, as well as agency and initiatives to remember and creatememories from below.

Access to clean energy has long been neglected within the humanitarian agenda. As a result, refugees are often locked into unsustainable and risky energy practices, especially in low-income countries. This study focuses on market-based interventions to deliver clean cooking fuels in refugee camps in protracted crises. The outcomes of market-based interventions are highly dependent on whether beneficiaries adopt and continuously use the products. However, clean cooking practices often face various adoption barriers. The aim of this study is to gain insights into the mechanisms and path-dependencies driving the adoption of clean cooking fuels in refugee camps and, by taking a modelling approach, to develop a method to analyse the effect of market-based clean cooking interventions. To this end, this study combines agent-based modelling with exploratory modelling techniques to capture social interactions, human decision-making behaviour, and deep uncertainties. The model formulation is grounded in a case study of a Rwandan refugee camp, and Diffusion of Innovation theory. Different interventions, including financial assistance for fuel purchase (cash transfers or vouchers), information campaigns, and maintenance activities, are simulated under a wide range of scenarios. Scenario discovery is applied to identify circumstances for success or failure of interventions. For both types of financial assistance, supporting information campaigns and maintenance activities are critical to create robust, timely, and long-term impact. Based on the findings, policy recommendations and guidelines for future interventions are derived., Engineering and Policy Analysis

In 2018, the number of forcibly displaced people all over the world was higher than ever before. More than a third of this group are refugees, often living in refugee camps. NGOs try to deliver all necessary aid to these camps, while facing limited access and resources. Therefore, they want to optimize the results of the aid they deliver. The structure and layout of a refugee camp cannot simply be adapted, as it has evolved over time. However, this path-dependent nature of the camp expansion has not been studied from the perspective of the refugees yet. This study combines the process of camp expansion with the location decisions for healthcare facilities in expanding refugee camps. In an agent-based model, the camp expansion is simulated according to the settling preferences of refugees. These preferences are proximity to roads, to other shelters and to healthcare facilities. The locations of healthcare facilities are determined using two optimization algorithms. By using predictions about future camp expansion based on the settling preferences of refugees, the healthcare providers can adapt their locating decisions to the settling preferences of refugees. Simultaneously, the placement of new facilities designed for expected camp expansion can affect the settling choices of refugees. The success of the optimization is measured in the resulting accessibility of healthcare facilities in refugee camps. First, it is found that the facility location optimization improves when future camp expansion is taken into account, if refugees can choose a location to settle upon arrival in a refugee camp. On the contrary, if refugees cannot choose a location to settle, predictions about camp expansion should not be included. Second, in case a space restriction of 45m2 surface area per person is maintained in a refugee camp, it is recommended to locate healthcare facilities using an algorithm that minimizes the travel distance between refugees and healthcare facilities., Engineering and Policy Analysis

El present treball consta de dues parts ben diferenciades. La primera d’elles és un estudi de l’origen de les ciutats que pretén discernir quines són les bases socials i antropològiques que van portar als humans a construir els primers assentaments, base de les ciutats actuals. Amb aquesta anàlisi es pretenen establir els factors fonamentals per a l’aparició de tota ciutat i les funcions bàsiques a les quals han de donar resposta els assentaments humans per a poder ser considerats com a tals. En la segona part, s’escullen tres exemples d’assentaments temporals, no considerats ciutats, per comprovar si comparteixen les funcions i elements bàsics que en l’apartat anterior ens han permès arribar a la definició de ciutat. La hipòtesi del treball afirma que actualment el concepte ciutat no fa referència exclusivament a aquests aspectes urbans i de servei que es tracten en la primera part, sinó que aquests són aplicables a qualsevol assentament i que, per tant, el concepte ciutat engloba un significat molt més ampli en referència a aspectes que no són ni antropològics ni arquitectònics. L’objectiu del treball és, per tant, intentar discernir si existeix alguna diferència arquitectònica entre els conceptes de ciutat i ciutat temporal o si, per contra, el concepte ciutat engloba i es caracteritza per altres factors aliens a la disciplina., The present work has two different parts. The first is a study of the origin of cities that seeks to discern the social and anthropological foundations that led humans to build the first settlements, the basis of today's cities. This analysis aims to establish the fundamental factors for the emergence of every city and the basic functions that human settlements must respond to in order to be considered as such. In the second part, three examples of temporary settlements, not considered cities, have been chosen to see if they share the functions and basic elements that in the previous section allowed us to reach the definition of city. The working hypothesis supports that nowadays the concept of city does not refer exclusively to these urban and service aspects which are dealt with in the first part, but is applicable to any settlement and that, therefore, the concept of city has a broader meaning that are neither anthropological nor architectural. The aim of the work is, therefore, to try to discern if there is any architectural difference between the concepts of city and temporal city or, conversely, the concept of city encompasses and is characterized by other factors outside the discipline.

Access to clean energy has long been neglected within the humanitarian agenda. As a result, refugees are often locked into unsustainable and risky energy practices, especially in low-income countries. This study focuses on market-based interventions to deliver clean cooking fuels in refugee camps in protracted crises. The outcomes of market-based interventions are highly dependent on whether beneficiaries adopt and continuously use the products. However, clean cooking practices often face various adoption barriers. The aim of this study is to gain insights into the mechanisms and path-dependencies driving the adoption of clean cooking fuels in refugee camps and, by taking a modelling approach, to develop a method to analyse the effect of market-based clean cooking interventions. To this end, this study combines agent-based modelling with exploratory modelling techniques to capture social interactions, human decision-making behaviour, and deep uncertainties. The model formulation is grounded in a case study of a Rwandan refugee camp, and Diffusion of Innovation theory. Different interventions, including financial assistance for fuel purchase (cash transfers or vouchers), information campaigns, and maintenance activities, are simulated under a wide range of scenarios. Scenario discovery is applied to identify circumstances for success or failure of interventions. For both types of financial assistance, supporting information campaigns and maintenance activities are critical to create robust, timely, and long-term impact. Based on the findings, policy recommendations and guidelines for future interventions are derived., Engineering and Policy Analysis