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During the 1990s, a genuine “fever” that has spread the concepts of the State as a regulator in Europe and has initiated a process of ‘agencification’ -or the creation of agencies- arose and its effect has survived and become part of our daily life. This article focused its attention on the study of this recent phenomenon, especially on independent, sector regulatory agencies, setting aside regulatory institutions that operate in the financial and securities markets that oversee competition, to focus on the difficulties that these institutions pose to the judicial control. In this regard, three ideas were explored: on the one hand, the nature of independent regulatory agencies; on the other hand, the understanding of the doctrine of the separation of powers, and finally, permeating the previous two, the predominant legal mindset in the structuring in question. Thus, this article intends to show how these three ideas have been raised in three different scenarios (the United States, the European Union, and Spain) and, how they have circulated through various legal systems., A partir de la década de los 90, sobrevino una auténtica “fiebre” que ha diseminado los conceptos del Estado regulador en Europa y ha iniciado el proceso de agencificación –creación de agencias–, que se prolonga hasta nuestros días. Este artículo focalizó su atención en el estudio de este fenómeno reciente, centrándose en los organismos reguladores independientes sectoriales y dejando de lado las instituciones reguladoras que operan en los mercados financieros y de valores y que supervisan la competencia, para concentrarse en las dificultades que estas instituciones plantean para el control judicial. En este sentido, se exploraron tres ideas: por un lado, la concepción sobre la naturaleza de los organismos reguladores independientes; por el otro, el entendimiento de la doctrina de la separación de poderes, y finalmente, permeando las otras dos ideas, el pensamiento jurídico predominante en el ordenamiento en cuestión. Así, se pretendió mostrar cómo estas tres ideas se han planteado en tres escenarios distintos (Estados Unidos, la Unión Europea y España) y, por tanto, han circulado a través de diversos ordenamientos jurídicos.

During the 1990s, a genuine “fever” that has spread the concepts of the State as a regulator in Europe and has initiated a process of ‘agencification’ -or the creation of agencies- arose and its effect has survived and become part of our daily life. This article focused its attention on the study of this recent phenomenon, especially on independent, sector regulatory agencies, setting aside regulatory institutions that operate in the financial and securities markets that oversee competition, to focus on the difficulties that these institutions pose to the judicial control. In this regard, three ideas were explored: on the one hand, the nature of independent regulatory agencies; on the other hand, the understanding of the doctrine of the separation of powers, and finally, permeating the previous two, the predominant legal mindset in the structuring in question. Thus, this article intends to show how these three ideas have been raised in three different scenarios (the United States, the European Union, and Spain) and, how they have circulated through various legal systems., A partir de la década de los 90, sobrevino una auténtica “fiebre” que ha diseminado los conceptos del Estado regulador en Europa y ha iniciado el proceso de agencificación –creación de agencias–, que se prolonga hasta nuestros días. Este artículo focalizó su atención en el estudio de este fenómeno reciente, centrándose en los organismos reguladores independientes sectoriales y dejando de lado las instituciones reguladoras que operan en los mercados financieros y de valores y que supervisan la competencia, para concentrarse en las dificultades que estas instituciones plantean para el control judicial. En este sentido, se exploraron tres ideas: por un lado, la concepción sobre la naturaleza de los organismos reguladores independientes; por el otro, el entendimiento de la doctrina de la separación de poderes, y finalmente, permeando las otras dos ideas, el pensamiento jurídico predominante en el ordenamiento en cuestión. Así, se pretendió mostrar cómo estas tres ideas se han planteado en tres escenarios distintos (Estados Unidos, la Unión Europea y España) y, por tanto, han circulado a través de diversos ordenamientos jurídicos.

During the 1990s, a genuine “fever” that has spread the concepts of the State as a regulator in Europe and has initiated a process of ‘agencification’ -or the creation of agencies- arose and its effect has survived and become part of our daily life. This article focused its attention on the study of this recent phenomenon, especially on independent, sector regulatory agencies, setting aside regulatory institutions that operate in the financial and securities markets that oversee competition, to focus on the difficulties that these institutions pose to the judicial control. In this regard, three ideas were explored: on the one hand, the nature of independent regulatory agencies; on the other hand, the understanding of the doctrine of the separation of powers, and finally, permeating the previous two, the predominant legal mindset in the structuring in question. Thus, this article intends to show how these three ideas have been raised in three different scenarios (the United States, the European Union, and Spain) and, how they have circulated through various legal systems., A partir de la década de los 90, sobrevino una auténtica “fiebre” que ha diseminado los conceptos del Estado regulador en Europa y ha iniciado el proceso de agencificación –creación de agencias–, que se prolonga hasta nuestros días. Este artículo focalizó su atención en el estudio de este fenómeno reciente, centrándose en los organismos reguladores independientes sectoriales y dejando de lado las instituciones reguladoras que operan en los mercados financieros y de valores y que supervisan la competencia, para concentrarse en las dificultades que estas instituciones plantean para el control judicial. En este sentido, se exploraron tres ideas: por un lado, la concepción sobre la naturaleza de los organismos reguladores independientes; por el otro, el entendimiento de la doctrina de la separación de poderes, y finalmente, permeando las otras dos ideas, el pensamiento jurídico predominante en el ordenamiento en cuestión. Así, se pretendió mostrar cómo estas tres ideas se han planteado en tres escenarios distintos (Estados Unidos, la Unión Europea y España) y, por tanto, han circulado a través de diversos ordenamientos jurídicos.

Collaborative tourism, with its impacts on space and the urban environment, on the one hand, and on the principles of freedom of enterprise, free competition and guarantee of market unity, on the other, constitutes an activity that can not be left aside of regulation. The safeguarding of the city as a harmonious and sustainable coexistence space, from the social and environmental point of view, inevitably requires intervention regimes adapted to the new reality of the phenomenon, whose regulation can not fail to address issues specific to urban planning, the management of territory or housing policy, such as the confi guration of neighborhoods or areas where the off er is concentrated -by means of zoning-, the provision of adequate infrastructures or the sufficient off er of rent or housing at a reasonable price to the resident population. Along with the territorial perspective, there is another, no less important one, which aff ects, on the one hand, the new intermediary channels through which the collaborative housing is articulated, the marketplaces, and, on the other, the new role of the providers of the accommodation service, the “peers” and the “professional services providers”. It is the perspective of economic activity and the rights and freedoms of citizens, whose impact on market unity is evident., El alojamiento colaborativo, con sus impactos sobre el espacio y el medio ambiente urbano, por un lado, y sobre los principios de libertad de empresa, libre competencia y garantía de la unidad de mercado, por otro, constituye una actividad que no puede quedar al margen de la regulación. La salvaguarda de la ciudad como espacio de convivencia armónica y sostenible, desde el punto de vista social y ambiental, exige inevitablemente regímenes de intervención adecuados a la nueva realidad del fenómeno, cuya regulación no puede dejar de abordar cuestiones propias del urbanismo, la ordenación del territorio o la política de vivienda, como es la configuración de los barrios o las zonas donde se concentre la oferta —mediante la zonificación—, la previsión de infraestructuras adecuadas o la oferta sufi ciente de alquiler o vivienda a precio razonable a la población residente. Junto a la perspectiva territorial, hay otra no menos importante que es la que afecta, por un lado, a los nuevos cauces intermediarios a través de los cuales se articula el alojamiento colaborativo, los marketplaces, y, por otro, al nuevo rol de los proveedores del servicio alojativo, los «peers» y los «professional services providers». Es la perspectiva de la actividad económica y de los derechos y libertades de los ciudadanos, cuya incidencia sobre la unidad de mercado es evidente.

The tension between neoliberalism and human rights in Latin America has served as a broth of crops of new categories of analysis such as the concept of constitutional regulatory state, that arises in a context of economic development focused on the production of materials bonuses and the constitutional consolidation of a discourse of rights, in which the courts constitutional have assumed an important role. This document explains how to has developed this process in the regulation of prior consultation in Colombia, Peru and Chile, to demonstrate the permanent interaction between branches of public power, especially those cuts, and discourse of rights with that of regulation based on efficiency., La tensión entre neoliberalismo y derechos humanos en América Latina ha servido como caldo de cultivos de nuevas categorías de análisis como el concepto de Estado constitucional regulador, que surge en un contexto de desarrollo económico volcado en la producción de materias primas y la consolidación constitucional de un discurso de los derechos, en los que las cortes constitucionales han asumido un importante protagonismo. Este documento explica cómo se ha desarrollado este proceso en la regulación de la consulta previa en Colombia, Perú y Chile, para demostrar la permanente interacción entre ramas del poder público, especialmente de las cortes, y de discurso de los derechos con el de la regulación basada en la eficiencia.

We examine the role of the regulatory state in the inequitable distribution of social advantages and disadvantages. To illustrate this, we examine the spatial distribution of exposures to air toxics from noxious land uses (commonly referred to as the environmental justice problem) and inquire into the nature of state action that would allow such inequity. Findings from our inquiry lead us to focus more closely on the administrative functions of the state, especially its role as a regulatory body. A case study focusing on health risks from incompatible land uses illustrates how spatial inequities result from the formally neutral rule-making actions of regulatory agencies and their particular organizational cultures. We describe the ethical basis of the regulatory state in terms of its formal, juridical, deontological underpinnings. In contrast to this stands the alternative ethical concept of care, which is inherently relational, contextual, and preferentially attentive to the needs of the vulnerable. We argue that the regulatory state can be reformed, building structures of care to better address issues of spatial inequity. We end with a discussion of how the institutional model of the caring state might be achieved in practice. © 2016 by American Association of Geographers.

Sin desconocer la vigencia e importancia de la doctrina probable, desde la promulgación de la Constitución de 1991 el ordenamiento jurídico colombiano, de marcada tradición romano-francesa, empezó a experimentar una aproximación hacia los sistemas de derecho anglosajón, gracias a la labor interpretativa de la Corte Constitucional. Así, a partir de la rígida aplicación de la ley por parte del juez se empezó a abrir camino la aplicación de la teoría del precedente, primero en materia judicial y luego en materia administrativa. Paralelo a esto, en la década de 1990 Colombia emprendió un programa de apertura económica que consagró el modelo de Estado mixto, dentro del cual coexiste la libertad económica con la regulación. De esta manera, la evolución de las fuentes del derecho nacional, aunada a la consagración de un Estado regulador que interviene en la economía, puso de presente el sometimiento de las autoridades administrativas de regulación al precedente judicial y administrativo., Without denying the validity and importance of the probable doctrine, since the enactment of the Political Constitution of 1991, Colombia´s legal system, of a Roman and French tradition, started to shift towards the common law system, mainly because of the interpretations of the Constitutional Court. Hence, the rigid usage of legislated law by judges is now open to the use of precedent to reach a decision. Simultaneously, in the Nineties Colombia began its economic opening and adopted the organization of a Mixed State, one where free competition and State regulation converge. With the evolution of the sources of law on the one hand, and the State regulation on the other, the concept of precedent applied to the decisions of administrative authorities has emerged.

Since the 1990s, several countries in Latin America liberalized and privatized the public utilities business. As a consequence, there was a transit from the Entrepreneur State to the Regulatory State, the latter being traditionally understood as a model of regulation for competition, with a mayor concern only on economic objectives. Notwithstanding, the socioeconomic reality of Latin American countries, in particular Colombia, presented the fact that competition cannot be the only priority, and that regulation of the public utilities business must also achieve social objectives. Public purposes, understood as economic and social objectives, are the cornerstone of State intervention., Desde los años noventa, ciertos países de América Latina liberalizaron y privatizaron el sector de los servicios públicos. Como consecuencia, se pasó del Estado empresario al Estado regulador, el cual era tradicionalmente entendido como un modelo de regulación para la competencia, centrado principalmente en objetivos económicos. Sin embargo, la realidad socioeconómica de los países de América Latina, en particular Colombia, demuestra que la competencia no es la única prioridad, sino que la regulación en los servicios públicos también debe atender a la consecución de objetivos sociales. Los objetivos públicos son el pilar de la intervención del Estado, entendido esto como objetivos económicos y sociales.

The inadequacy of public finances, the discrediting of public enterprises and their subsequent privatisation, the loss of confidence in economic planning and consequent recourse to market as an alternative technique, and the need for expertise, stability and international credibility in administrative intervention in strategic sectors, are cause of the implementation of the «regulatory State» in Europe. These elements affect with special intensity in the EU and although there have been political and legal circumstances that have delayed this transformation, the evolution of the once restrictive doctrine Meroni has largely eliminated the legal obstacles. On the other hand, the decision by the UE legislator to give to national regulatory agencies discretionary powers, without the legal possibility of limitation by the national legislator, It is a mutation affecting the Constitution of the member States and poses problems of accountability and judicial review., La privatización, el descrédito de la planificación económica y las necesarias especialización, estabilidad y credibilidad internacional de la intervención en sectores estratégicos han coadyuvado a la implantación del llamado «Estado regulador » en Europa. Estos elementos inciden con especial intensidad en la Unión Europea y la evolución de la en otro tiempo restrictiva jurisprudencia Meroni ha reducido en gran medida los obstáculos jurídicos. El otorgamiento por el legislador comunitario de poderes discrecionales a agencias reguladoras nacionales supone una mutación constitucional de los ordenamientos de los Estados miembros.

Why do some bureaucratic bodies become robust after they are created, with adequate resources and authority to perform their tasks, while others remain underfunded and limited in scope? My dissertation explores this question using multisector regulatory agencies in Brazil. Before, during, and after the development of concessions and transfer of essential services to private control in Brazil, state governments created regulatory agencies to maintain an active state role overseeing of service delivery. Though regulatory agencies followed very similar formal outlines, their post-creation development varied widely. I explain this variation.My arguments are based in political principals' electoral incentives. I begin with an instrumental explanation of agency creation. Governors created regulatory agencies to address a combination of consumer and concessionaire anxiety where they were unable to otherwise make long-term commitments to prevent abusive price increases or expropriation. I then argue that post-creation development was most pronounced where multisector bodies focused most heavily on work in electrical energy, sanitation, and piped natural gas distribution. Mayors and city councilmembers can claim credit for service improvements in these policy areas because these services are geographically bounded. By contrast, work in intercity highways and transportation provides few opportunities for improvement for which local officials can claim credit. Agencies focused on these second set of issues do not develop a positive reputation with mayors. Governors in turn care about mayors' opinions, and receive credible information about bureaucratic work from them, because mayors' support is key in future statewide elections. Agency leaders who employ their positive reputation to successfully lobby for more resources and authority produce robust agencies.I explore this argument in multiple areas. First, I explain the workings of the proposed causal mechanism through a compa

Why do some bureaucratic bodies become robust after they are created, with adequate resources and authority to perform their tasks, while others remain underfunded and limited in scope? My dissertation explores this question using multisector regulatory agencies in Brazil. Before, during, and after the development of concessions and transfer of essential services to private control in Brazil, state governments created regulatory agencies to maintain an active state role overseeing of service delivery. Though regulatory agencies followed very similar formal outlines, their post-creation development varied widely. I explain this variation.My arguments are based in political principals' electoral incentives. I begin with an instrumental explanation of agency creation. Governors created regulatory agencies to address a combination of consumer and concessionaire anxiety where they were unable to otherwise make long-term commitments to prevent abusive price increases or expropriation. I then argue that post-creation development was most pronounced where multisector bodies focused most heavily on work in electrical energy, sanitation, and piped natural gas distribution. Mayors and city councilmembers can claim credit for service improvements in these policy areas because these services are geographically bounded. By contrast, work in intercity highways and transportation provides few opportunities for improvement for which local officials can claim credit. Agencies focused on these second set of issues do not develop a positive reputation with mayors. Governors in turn care about mayors' opinions, and receive credible information about bureaucratic work from them, because mayors' support is key in future statewide elections. Agency leaders who employ their positive reputation to successfully lobby for more resources and authority produce robust agencies.I explore this argument in multiple areas. First, I explain the workings of the proposed causal mechanism through a compa

During the first half of 2012, the European institutions and Member States decided to boost jobs through two policy documents: the Communication "Towards a job-rich recovery", and the "Compact for Growth and Jobs". However, this strategy towards a better employment policy cannot overcome the structural deficiencies of the European social dimension, above all, the unconditioned centrality of the internal market and its correlates. At the same time, those normative measures linked to the new European economic governance consolidate this centrality. Hence the need to constitutionalise at the supranational level principles that allow to regulate the market and to give to positive integration own substance., En el primer semestre de 2012, las instituciones europeas y los Estados miembros decidieron dar un impulso a la ocupación que se materializó en dos documentos políticos, la Comunicación "Hacia una recuperación generadora de empleo", y el "Pacto por el Crecimiento y el Empleo". Sin embargo, esta estrategia hacia una política de empleo mejorada no logra superar las deficiencias que acompañan al diseño estructural de la dimensión social europea, en el que el mercado interior y sus correlatos asumen una centralidad incondicionada. Paralelamente, el conjunto de medidas normativas que acompañan a la nueva gobernanza económica europea no hacen sino consolidar esta centralidad. De ahí la necesidad de constitucionalizar a nivel supranacional principios que permitan regular el mercado y que doten a la integración positiva de sustantividad propia.

Twenty years of reform seeking new strategies to improve educational service! The agreement secretarial 592, according to a new curriculum and proposes a new organization of basic education, new trends, new proposals. In the present academic essay presents a comparative study of the educational voucher and charter schools. In February 2011 a decree was allowed to deduct income tax from the payment of school fees and taking the first steps of education bond, which favors private education in our country. The charter school, for its part, responds to neoliberalism in education and the trend toward privatization of public schools. We live in times of change, the school in changing, moving the boat and move us., ¡Veinte años de reformas buscando nuevas estrategias para la mejora del servicio educativo! El acuerdo secretarial 592, señala un nuevo plan de estudios y plantea una nueva organización de la educación básica; nuevas tendencias, nuevas propuestas. En el presente ensayo académico se hace un estudio comparativo entre el bono educativo y las escuelas charter. En febrero del 2011 por decreto se permite deducir del Impuesto sobre la renta el pago de colegiaturas, así se dan los primeros pasos del bono educativo, que favorece la educación privada en nuestro país. La escuela charter, por su parte, responde al neoliberalismo en la educación y la tendencia hacia la privatización de la escuela pública. Vivimos tiempos de cambio, la escuela está cambiando, se mueve el barco y nos movemos nosotros.

O presente artigo expõe uma criação metodológica desenvolvida para medir a eficácia dos mecanismos judiciais de proteção dos direitos dos usuários daquelas atividades sujeitas à intervenção do Estado na economia, cujo regime jurídico se tem adaptado ao modelo regulatório, em boa medida como receptor da influência da globalização jurídica nesta matéria. Além disso, ilustra-se o emprego da metodologia proposta com os resultados de sua aplicação ao setor transporte., El presente artículo expone un diseño metodológico desarrollado para medir la eficacia de los mecanismos judiciales de protección de los derechos de los usuarios de aquellas actividades sujetas a la intervención del Estado en la economía, cuyo régimen jurídico se ha adaptado al modelo regulatorio, en buena medida como receptor de la influencia de la globalización jurídica en esta materia. Además se ilustra el empleo de la metodología propuesta con los resultados de su aplicación al sector transporte., This paper presents a methodological design developed to measure the effectiveness of judiciary mechanisms for the protection of the rights of users of businesses that are subject to State intervention in the economy, whose legal system has been adapted to the regulatory model, largely as a recipient of the influence of legal globalization in this area. It is also illustrates the use of the proposed methodology and the results of its application in the transport sector.

Water governance exerts an impact on the socio-politic life of Honduras. For instance, the new legal framework changes institutions. New water organisations are created, and new processes and proceedings are proposed. These times when strategies from developed countries are transferred to developing countries, such as water governance, the need for an evaluation is desirable to disentangle the problems and to look forward at opportunities and find alternatives. The journey from government to governance describes the change from the traditional government behaviour towards new governance. In countries like Honduras, as in developing countries, this change describes a complex process in which the imported strategies are conflicting with existing established socio-political patterns. The new water management approach as applied in Honduras needs to take into account the socio-political reality and the availability of resources, if the water governance process would gain relevance. Honduras is a relatively new democratic country after many years of military regime, thus the government needs also to be part of the governance process. This doctoral thesis studies and highlights the characteristics of the traditional Honduran government approach, and the effects that the new governance approach has posed in the country. The difficulties emerging from this shift of approaches are discussed, and explored. The research finds support in the exploration of Honduran political and institutional sociological history to elaborate the causes and motives for current governmental attitudes. The research relates to concepts of development strategies, institutionalism and regulation modes. This thesis argues that governance has achieved a pseudo empirical implementation in Honduras, and that new mechanisms need to be devised to balance the suggested governance mode using new notions of regulatory space, and the theoretical meta-governance approach, in order to balance between the import, QC 20100903

Water governance exerts an impact on the socio-politic life of Honduras. For instance, the new legal framework changes institutions. New water organisations are created, and new processes and proceedings are proposed. These times when strategies from developed countries are transferred to developing countries, such as water governance, the need for an evaluation is desirable to disentangle the problems and to look forward at opportunities and find alternatives. The journey from government to governance describes the change from the traditional government behaviour towards new governance. In countries like Honduras, as in developing countries, this change describes a complex process in which the imported strategies are conflicting with existing established socio-political patterns. The new water management approach as applied in Honduras needs to take into account the socio-political reality and the availability of resources, if the water governance process would gain relevance. Honduras is a relatively new democratic country after many years of military regime, thus the government needs also to be part of the governance process. This doctoral thesis studies and highlights the characteristics of the traditional Honduran government approach, and the effects that the new governance approach has posed in the country. The difficulties emerging from this shift of approaches are discussed, and explored. The research finds support in the exploration of Honduran political and institutional sociological history to elaborate the causes and motives for current governmental attitudes. The research relates to concepts of development strategies, institutionalism and regulation modes. This thesis argues that governance has achieved a pseudo empirical implementation in Honduras, and that new mechanisms need to be devised to balance the suggested governance mode using new notions of regulatory space, and the theoretical meta-governance approach, in order to balance between the import, QC 20100903

Water governance exerts an impact on the socio-politic life of Honduras. For instance, the new legal framework changes institutions. New water organisations are created, and new processes and proceedings are proposed. These times when strategies from developed countries are transferred to developing countries, such as water governance, the need for an evaluation is desirable to disentangle the problems and to look forward at opportunities and find alternatives. The journey from government to governance describes the change from the traditional government behaviour towards new governance. In countries like Honduras, as in developing countries, this change describes a complex process in which the imported strategies are conflicting with existing established socio-political patterns. The new water management approach as applied in Honduras needs to take into account the socio-political reality and the availability of resources, if the water governance process would gain relevance. Honduras is a relatively new democratic country after many years of military regime, thus the government needs also to be part of the governance process. This doctoral thesis studies and highlights the characteristics of the traditional Honduran government approach, and the effects that the new governance approach has posed in the country. The difficulties emerging from this shift of approaches are discussed, and explored. The research finds support in the exploration of Honduran political and institutional sociological history to elaborate the causes and motives for current governmental attitudes. The research relates to concepts of development strategies, institutionalism and regulation modes. This thesis argues that governance has achieved a pseudo empirical implementation in Honduras, and that new mechanisms need to be devised to balance the suggested governance mode using new notions of regulatory space, and the theoretical meta-governance approach, in order to balance between the import, QC 20100903

Water governance exerts an impact on the socio-politic life of Honduras. For instance, the new legal framework changes institutions. New water organisations are created, and new processes and proceedings are proposed. These times when strategies from developed countries are transferred to developing countries, such as water governance, the need for an evaluation is desirable to disentangle the problems and to look forward at opportunities and find alternatives. The journey from government to governance describes the change from the traditional government behaviour towards new governance. In countries like Honduras, as in developing countries, this change describes a complex process in which the imported strategies are conflicting with existing established socio-political patterns. The new water management approach as applied in Honduras needs to take into account the socio-political reality and the availability of resources, if the water governance process would gain relevance. Honduras is a relatively new democratic country after many years of military regime, thus the government needs also to be part of the governance process. This doctoral thesis studies and highlights the characteristics of the traditional Honduran government approach, and the effects that the new governance approach has posed in the country. The difficulties emerging from this shift of approaches are discussed, and explored. The research finds support in the exploration of Honduran political and institutional sociological history to elaborate the causes and motives for current governmental attitudes. The research relates to concepts of development strategies, institutionalism and regulation modes. This thesis argues that governance has achieved a pseudo empirical implementation in Honduras, and that new mechanisms need to be devised to balance the suggested governance mode using new notions of regulatory space, and the theoretical meta-governance approach, in order to balance between the import, QC 20100903