Search

Sodium fluoroacetate (1080) is a vertebrate pesticide principally used to control unwanted introduced mammals in New Zealand and Australia. For 1080, over 260 publications during the last ten years supplement a body of scientific information regarding its mode of action, natural occurrence, toxicology, antidotes, metabolism, and fate in the environment. Multi-year studies have explored long-term outcomes for multiple native bird species. Numerous reviews on community attitudes stimulated by the Predator Free New Zealand (PFNZ) 2050 campaign conclude that 1080 use for conservation remains controversial. Further effort is needed to increase target specificity, avoid game species, and employ approaches with the highest public acceptance, including hunting, trapping, and species-specific toxins. Greater acceptance of the large-scale use of any pest control is likely when long-term goals and strategies for ecosystem recovery employ toxins as one-off treatments for eradicating pests versus continued applications.

Introduction: Sodium fluoroacetate, known as compound 1080, was discovered in Germany during the Second World War. It is usually used as a rodenticide, it is an odorless and tasteless substance, with a lethal dose in humans of 2 mg / kg that is why it was withdrawn from the market in some countries, including Colombia; however, it is obtained illegally. This substance has biochemical and physiological effects at the cellular level that alter the transport of citrate at the mitochondrial level, generating accumulation of lactic acid and alteration of the glucose use. The clinical manifestations are nonspecific since there is no any cardinal symptom. Therefore, its diagnosis is made due to high clinical suspicion associated with establishment of exposure to the compound in view of the difficulty to obtain paraclinical confirmation in a timely manner. Methods: We present a case report of intentional ingestion of sodium fluoroacetate in an adolescent that is associated with an infection added to the bloodstream by methicillin- sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). The patient developed multiple complications that lead to support in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) with a satisfactory outcome. In view of the lack of a specific antidote, she was treated with ethanol in order to increase the level of acetate; thus, offering an alternative substrate to the Krebs cycle. It is suggested that the ethanol offers benefits in the acute treatment of these patients. Results: The patient with sodium fluoroacetate poisoning and kidney failure received renal replacement therapy with a favorable evolution and survival at discharge from the intensive care unit of a third-level hospital in the city of Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. Conclusions: Sodium fluoroacetate poisoning is relatively rare and can cause acute kidney injury and multi-organ failure with a high rate of complications and death. A case of self-inflicted poisoning that received a timely manner continuous renal replace

In this study, composites based on polyolefin matrices (EVA, PP and MAPE) filled with nanostructured expanded graphite (EG) were prepared through melt mixing. Functionalized EG was prepared using a non-covalent surfactant functionalization method. Anionic sodium dodecyl sulphate (SOS) surfactant in water was used for surface modification of EG through sonication processing, and composites containing EG with and without surfactant treatment were compared. Electron beam (EB) irradiation treatment was performed on the samples, and its influence on the overall properties of the composites was investigated. For the EG containing samples, the results showed big agglomerations and poor particle dispersion, while SOS treatment reduced the interparticle attraction resulting in better particle dispersion and interaction between the graphite platelets and the polymer matrix. EB irradiation had no influence on the morphology of the samples, since there was no polymer melting at macroscopic level when the electron beam penetrated the polymer, and the particles could not redisperse. The gel contents of the irradiated EVA samples without and with SOS treatment increased with an increase in EG loading. The irradiated EVA/SOS-EG composites had significantly higher gel content values than the irradiated EVA/EG samples due to the improved interaction and dispersion of the EG platelets in the EVA, which enhanced the energy transfer to the EVA cha ins and thus the crosslinking efficiency. In the case of the PP samples, there was no gel after soxhlet extraction, indicating that the formation of crosslinked material was a minor process during EB irradiation. For the MAPE samples, three different EB irradiation doses were applied, and their gel contents increased with increasing filler content and EB irradiation dose up to maxima at 4 wt% filler and 100 kGy dose respectively. The number average and weight average molar masses of PP increased with increasing EG and SDS-EG contents, but decr, National Research Foundation (NRF), University of the Free State, International Bureau of the BMBF Germany

Introduced rats continue to have a major impact on biodiversity around the world, and improved control techniques are required to avoid further extinctions. We are trialing re-setting toxin-delivery systems (Spitfires) targeting a range of predators, including rats. The rat Spitfire works by firing 800 mg of a toxic paste onto the belly of the rat as it passes through a tunnel; the device then resets. When the rats groom the paste from their fur, they ingest the toxin. Each Spitfire is capable of approximately 100 doses and is fitted with a counter and a delay mechanism. We trialed 0.55% 1080 paste in the Spitfire and 15 of 15 wild Norway rats and 14 of 15 black rats died. Further trials are planned with a range of toxins to allow flexibility of use. Resetting devices that are expected to work for long periods without being serviced also require long-life lures. Preliminary trials showed urine and scats from female Norway rats were attractive to both male and female Norway rats. The volatile components from these and further trials will be identified to aid in developing a long-life lure. The long-term, effective control of introduced rats will require a range of toxins with different modes of action, a number of different delivery systems, and long-life lures.

Introduced rats continue to have a major impact on biodiversity around the world, and improved control techniques are required to avoid further extinctions. We are trialing re-setting toxin-delivery systems (Spitfires) targeting a range of predators, including rats. The rat Spitfire works by firing 800 mg of a toxic paste onto the belly of the rat as it passes through a tunnel; the device then resets. When the rats groom the paste from their fur, they ingest the toxin. Each Spitfire is capable of approximately 100 doses and is fitted with a counter and a delay mechanism. We trialed 0.55% 1080 paste in the Spitfire and 15 of 15 wild Norway rats and 14 of 15 black rats died. Further trials are planned with a range of toxins to allow flexibility of use. Resetting devices that are expected to work for long periods without being serviced also require long-life lures. Preliminary trials showed urine and scats from female Norway rats were attractive to both male and female Norway rats. The volatile components from these and further trials will be identified to aid in developing a long-life lure. The long-term, effective control of introduced rats will require a range of toxins with different modes of action, a number of different delivery systems, and long-life lures.

A field-based experiment was carried out to determine if watercress, commonly harvested by Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand, could take up the vertebrate pesticide sodium fluoroacetate (Compound 1080), often applied aerially in New Zealand for the control of introduced vertebrate pests. Single toxic baits were placed within seven watercress stands, while three stands received non-toxic controls. Water and plant tissue samples were taken out to 17 days after bait placement, and samples analysed for 1080 content. 1080 was recorded from treatment watercress samples, with a maximum concentration of 63 ppb recorded on Day 7. Subsequent sampling did not show any 1080 in watercress tissue. It is concluded that there is a negligible secondary poisoning risk to humans via consumption of watercress after exposure to 1080.

A field-based experiment was carried out to determine if watercress, commonly harvested by Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand, could take up the vertebrate pesticide sodium fluoroacetate (Compound 1080), often applied aerially in New Zealand for the control of introduced vertebrate pests. Single toxic baits were placed within seven watercress stands, while three stands received non-toxic controls. Water and plant tissue samples were taken out to 17 days after bait placement, and samples analysed for 1080 content. 1080 was recorded from treatment watercress samples, with a maximum concentration of 63 ppb recorded on Day 7. Subsequent sampling did not show any 1080 in watercress tissue. It is concluded that there is a negligible secondary poisoning risk to humans via consumption of watercress after exposure to 1080.

Compound 1080® is a man-made sodium salt of fluoroacetic acid or fluoroacetate, which occurs in nature as the toxin in many species of poisonous plants. The toxicity of such plants had long been recognized, but the toxic agent was not identified as fluoroacetate until 1944. By that time, the pesticidal potential of synthesized sodium fluoroacetate (code number 1080-44) was being explored in the United States in wartime, crash program aimed at finding new rodenticides. Compound 1080, the main product of that program, proved to be the best rodenticide known up to that time. It was found to be even more toxic to canids than to rodents, so was used experimentally for coyote control beginning in November 1944. Compound 1080 was authorized for operational use in governmental predator control in 1946. Large meat baits, or bait stations, injected with 1080 solution and placed on livestock ranges in winter quickly became a preferred method for reducing coyote populations that preyed on sheep and cattle. The use of 1080 bait stations peaked in Fiscal Year (FY) 1963, when over 16,000 stations were placed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Predator and Rodent Control program. After 1963, numbers of 1080 stations declined year by year to 1972 when the use of 1080 and other predacides on Federal lands and in Federal programs was stopped by President Nixon’s Executive Order 11643, followed by Environmental Protection Agency suspension and cancellation of registrations for 1080 and other predacides. The 1080 cancellation was based partly on high potential hazard to humans, even though no human had ever been killed or seriously injured in connection with the use of this toxicant in coyote control. Paradoxically, most of the political agitation over Compound 1080 focused on its use in predator control, even though much greater amounts were used for rodent control. The total amount of 1080 sold in the U.S. during 1968-1972, the last 5 years in which 1080 bait stations were used, wa

Feral pigs occupy 40% of Australia along with numerous other countries. They cost Australian agriculture greater than AUD$100 M annually through stock predation and crop, pasture, and infrastructure damage. Broad-scale, integrated poisoning campaigns, predominantly using Compound 1080, are the most practical and cost-effective control method in Australia. However, the lack of a target-specific toxicant and bait for feral pigs means that baiting campaigns can place non-target species at risk. Confounding this is the wide distribution and diet of feral pigs in Australia, which means that no current single bait is effective for all feral pigs. A potential solution to this problem is to use the known ecology, genetics, and socio-biology of feral pigs in different habitats to design bait(s) with increased target specificity, then combine this with habitat-specific operating procedures inferred from ecological and genetic studies to reduce non-target exposure. This process is currently underway in Australia. Habitat-independent characteristics of feral pigs that can be used to develop target-specific baits are their large size and strong jaws, their keen sense of smell, their poor vision, their omnivorous diet, and their nocturnal and fossorial nature. Producing large, tough, odorous, dyed (to deter birds), meat and vegetable (to deter obligatory carnivores or herbivores) baits that are laid at night and buried where possible will make feral pig baits more target specific and reduce non-target exposure. Current pen and field trials of bait prototypes in a range of habitats are confirming this. Appropriate baiting regimes for feral pigs in different habitats, as determined through ecology and genetics and subsequent field trials, are presently being determined and transformed into standard operating procedures to lessen non-target exposure. The planned incorporation of more target-specific toxins or ‘Achilles Heel’ approaches in the future should further increase the targe

It was hypothesised that reintroduction of Australian native mammals, currently being severely impacted by feral cat predation, would be more successful if these mammals could have a retained toxicity as discussed in historical accounts. Seeds from the Australian genus Gastrolobium (Fabaceae: Mirbelieae) were analysed in the search for a toxicant that would explain historical accounts of toxic wildlife. Numerous accounts referring to bronzewing pigeons having toxic bones were specifically noted. Analysis of this seed found no evidence for rapidly toxic alkaloids previously reported as being extracted from the leaves of York Road poison and box poison. However, evidence for the presence of organo-fluorine compounds in addition to the reported fluoroacetate (Compound 1080) was discovered. A limited cat dosing trial found that a highly fluorinated box poison seed caused a cat to cease respiration in 82 minutes, but its chloroform extract produced no adverse physiological response. In addition, citrate accumulation appeared more rapid and acute with increasing seed ‘total fluorine.’

It was hypothesised that reintroduction of Australian native mammals, currently being severely impacted by feral cat predation, would be more successful if these mammals could have a retained toxicity as discussed in historical accounts. Seeds from the Australian genus Gastrolobium (Fabaceae: Mirbelieae) were analysed in the search for a toxicant that would explain historical accounts of toxic wildlife. Numerous accounts referring to bronzewing pigeons having toxic bones were specifically noted. Analysis of this seed found no evidence for rapidly toxic alkaloids previously reported as being extracted from the leaves of York Road poison and box poison. However, evidence for the presence of organo-fluorine compounds in addition to the reported fluoroacetate (Compound 1080) was discovered. A limited cat dosing trial found that a highly fluorinated box poison seed caused a cat to cease respiration in 82 minutes, but its chloroform extract produced no adverse physiological response. In addition, citrate accumulation appeared more rapid and acute with increasing seed ‘total fluorine.’

Feral pigs occupy 40% of Australia along with numerous other countries. They cost Australian agriculture greater than AUD$100 M annually through stock predation and crop, pasture, and infrastructure damage. Broad-scale, integrated poisoning campaigns, predominantly using Compound 1080, are the most practical and cost-effective control method in Australia. However, the lack of a target-specific toxicant and bait for feral pigs means that baiting campaigns can place non-target species at risk. Confounding this is the wide distribution and diet of feral pigs in Australia, which means that no current single bait is effective for all feral pigs. A potential solution to this problem is to use the known ecology, genetics, and socio-biology of feral pigs in different habitats to design bait(s) with increased target specificity, then combine this with habitat-specific operating procedures inferred from ecological and genetic studies to reduce non-target exposure. This process is currently underway in Australia. Habitat-independent characteristics of feral pigs that can be used to develop target-specific baits are their large size and strong jaws, their keen sense of smell, their poor vision, their omnivorous diet, and their nocturnal and fossorial nature. Producing large, tough, odorous, dyed (to deter birds), meat and vegetable (to deter obligatory carnivores or herbivores) baits that are laid at night and buried where possible will make feral pig baits more target specific and reduce non-target exposure. Current pen and field trials of bait prototypes in a range of habitats are confirming this. Appropriate baiting regimes for feral pigs in different habitats, as determined through ecology and genetics and subsequent field trials, are presently being determined and transformed into standard operating procedures to lessen non-target exposure. The planned incorporation of more target-specific toxins or ‘Achilles Heel’ approaches in the future should further increase the targe

Compound 1080® is a man-made sodium salt of fluoroacetic acid or fluoroacetate, which occurs in nature as the toxin in many species of poisonous plants. The toxicity of such plants had long been recognized, but the toxic agent was not identified as fluoroacetate until 1944. By that time, the pesticidal potential of synthesized sodium fluoroacetate (code number 1080-44) was being explored in the United States in wartime, crash program aimed at finding new rodenticides. Compound 1080, the main product of that program, proved to be the best rodenticide known up to that time. It was found to be even more toxic to canids than to rodents, so was used experimentally for coyote control beginning in November 1944. Compound 1080 was authorized for operational use in governmental predator control in 1946. Large meat baits, or bait stations, injected with 1080 solution and placed on livestock ranges in winter quickly became a preferred method for reducing coyote populations that preyed on sheep and cattle. The use of 1080 bait stations peaked in Fiscal Year (FY) 1963, when over 16,000 stations were placed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Predator and Rodent Control program. After 1963, numbers of 1080 stations declined year by year to 1972 when the use of 1080 and other predacides on Federal lands and in Federal programs was stopped by President Nixon’s Executive Order 11643, followed by Environmental Protection Agency suspension and cancellation of registrations for 1080 and other predacides. The 1080 cancellation was based partly on high potential hazard to humans, even though no human had ever been killed or seriously injured in connection with the use of this toxicant in coyote control. Paradoxically, most of the political agitation over Compound 1080 focused on its use in predator control, even though much greater amounts were used for rodent control. The total amount of 1080 sold in the U.S. during 1968-1972, the last 5 years in which 1080 bait stations were used, wa

Around NZ$76 million per annum is presently spent on controlling and researching the introduced brushtail possum in New Zealand. The national control effort is likely to be further increased over the next decade in an attempt to eradicate bovine tuberculosis and to arrest the degradation of key conservation areas. There is a risk that repeated control operations using toxic baits could result in widespread development of learned “bait-shyness,” behavior that develops when sublethally poisoned animals are able to link the experience of an illness with the memory of the bait eaten. Four studies are reviewed that aimed to determine the likelihood of possums becoming shy after sublethal doses imparted by different types of toxic bait, and to find solutions to the problem. Captive possums were presented with baits containing sublethal doses of the 4 vertebrate pesticides commonly used. Following a recovery period, possums were presented with lethal baits and their response compared with that of naive possums. Between 15% and 90% of possums previously dosed with sublethal doses of cyanide, 1080, or cholecalciferol developed bait-shyness, the proportion being dose and toxicant dependent. Although cholecalciferol induces toxicosis more slowly (i.e., >24 h) than cyanide (5 min) and 1080 (1 h), possums were nevertheless able to associate the effects of this toxicant with consumption of the bait in which it was delivered and avoid eating further baits. However, brodifacoum acts very slowly (1-4 weeks), and possums did not become shy towards baits containing this toxicant after first eating sublethal baits. Shyness induced by either 1080 or cyanide persisted for at least 12 and 24 months respectively, thus jeopardizing the effectiveness of “maintenance” control operations, which can be required every 12 months or less. The persistence of bait-shyness to cholecalciferol remains untested. Use of alternative baits (bait-switching) proved an effective solution for eliminating cy

Around NZ$76 million per annum is presently spent on controlling and researching the introduced brushtail possum in New Zealand. The national control effort is likely to be further increased over the next decade in an attempt to eradicate bovine tuberculosis and to arrest the degradation of key conservation areas. There is a risk that repeated control operations using toxic baits could result in widespread development of learned “bait-shyness,” behavior that develops when sublethally poisoned animals are able to link the experience of an illness with the memory of the bait eaten. Four studies are reviewed that aimed to determine the likelihood of possums becoming shy after sublethal doses imparted by different types of toxic bait, and to find solutions to the problem. Captive possums were presented with baits containing sublethal doses of the 4 vertebrate pesticides commonly used. Following a recovery period, possums were presented with lethal baits and their response compared with that of naive possums. Between 15% and 90% of possums previously dosed with sublethal doses of cyanide, 1080, or cholecalciferol developed bait-shyness, the proportion being dose and toxicant dependent. Although cholecalciferol induces toxicosis more slowly (i.e., >24 h) than cyanide (5 min) and 1080 (1 h), possums were nevertheless able to associate the effects of this toxicant with consumption of the bait in which it was delivered and avoid eating further baits. However, brodifacoum acts very slowly (1-4 weeks), and possums did not become shy towards baits containing this toxicant after first eating sublethal baits. Shyness induced by either 1080 or cyanide persisted for at least 12 and 24 months respectively, thus jeopardizing the effectiveness of “maintenance” control operations, which can be required every 12 months or less. The persistence of bait-shyness to cholecalciferol remains untested. Use of alternative baits (bait-switching) proved an effective solution for eliminating cy

Dingoes and other wild dogs cause substantial damage and control expense in many Australian environments. The main methods of control are exclusion fencing, poisoning with 1080, and trapping. Strategies to mitigate livestock predation by wild dogs include; enterprise substitution, the reduction of wild dog populations, and baited buffer zones between wild dog country and sheep country. Damage functions show significant positive relationships between density indices and the losses caused by predation for both sheep and cattle enterprises. However, descriptive and explanatory models fitted the data poorly. A strategic approach to the management of wild dogs that aims to reduce predation on livestock while allowing the conservation of wild living dingoes is also outlined.

The fundamental assumption in the management of predators is that reducing predator numbers will reduce their predation impact on livestock. Research on dingoes (Canis lupus dingo) has shown this assumption to be incorrect in beef production areas in northern and western Queensland. Aerial and ground baiting with 1080 (fluoroacetate) is the principal dingo-control method used in extensive pastoral areas of Australia. This paper compares four approaches to measure the effectiveness of these control programs. Dingo abundance was reduced in 11 of 13 baiting campaigns monitored with almost two-thirds of these producing >50% reduction. However, concurrent decline in dingo abundance occurred in non-baited areas due to seasonal changes in dingo populations. When this was taken into account, less than half of the control programs produced >50% reduction. The time taken for dingoes to recolonize baited areas is also an important measure of effectiveness. In two-thirds of the control programs, conducted in the first nine months of the year, dingoes recolonized prior to the period of peak calving (November/December) when the biggest threat to calves existed. The timing and the scale of control programs affect the rate of re-colonization. Calf loss was subsequently higher and occurred more frequently in baited areas compared to non-baited areas. Seasonal conditions, the status of prey populations, and the impact of control programs on social organization and prey selection, are key factors affecting calf predation. Control programs should be assessed by measuring impact rather than changes in predator numbers. The assumption that a direct relationship exists between predator numbers and impact is not valid for dingoes in beef production areas in northern Australia.

Bennett’s wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) was introduced to South Canterbury in New Zealand’s South Island in 1974. The species rapidly increased in numbers, and by the 1940s had increased to levels where it had become a significant agricultural pest. In 1947, a coordinated wallaby control program employing teams of shooters commenced. However, wallaby numbers stayed high, and it was not until the early 1960s when aerially sown 1080 baits were used that a significant reduction in wallaby numbers was achieved. However, the need to de-stock areas prior to application of the baits prompted fanners to demand control by shooting teams rather than poison in order to achieve ongoing control. Wallaby control in South Canterbury is managed under a Regional Pest Management Strategy, relying on shooting as the primary form of control, but using aerially distributed 1080 baits and 1080 gel applied to broadleaf foliage to a limited extent when and where necessary. Wallabies are continuing to expand their range into the central alpine region adjacent to South Canterbury where they are becoming a conservation threat on public lands. In this study, we re-analyzed 13 years of detailed hunting return data in order to derive a synoptic model of wallaby population growth relative to density and prevailing rainfall. We also estimated cost-effectiveness models for control employing shooting teams, aerially distributed 1080 baits, and 1080 gel applied to foliage. We then explored the cost-effectiveness of alternative strategies for wallaby control by combining the models predicting wallaby population growth with those predicting variation in the cost-effectiveness of available techniques. The implications of this study for ongoing wallaby control for mitigation of agricultural and conservation impacts are discussed.

Fox predation has long been suspected as a major cause of lamb death in southern Australia. The response of farmers has been to poison foxes using sodium monofluoroacetate (compound 1080). This has become more widespread in recent years due to a number of factors including the reduced returns from sale of skins which has made shooting foxes unprofitable. In a replicated experiment we investigated the effect of fox control on lamb survival. Fox baiting was implemented at three levels; no baiting, baiting once a year before lambing (the recommended practice), and baiting three times a year. This was carried out on sheep properties with ultrasounded flocks over three years. The experiment was conducted in central New South Wales, Australia, in an area where wild dogs and native dingoes had been eradicated. Foxes, an introduced species, were the major mammalian predators of lambs in the district, as estimated from previous post-mortems of lamb carcasses. No significant difference was detected in lambing, as measured by the number of lambs per ewe at lamb marking 8 to 10 weeks after birth, however, there was a significant effect of fox control on the number of healthy lambs killed by foxes assessed by lamb post-mortems. The possible reasons for this result are discussed including features of the experimental design and the level of replication.

Information concerning hispid pocket gopher (Orthogeomys hispidus hispidus) damage to sugarcane and the efficacy of sodium monofluroacetate (Compound 1080) treatments for control of this pest were obtained for the State of Veracruz, Mexico. Pocket gophers represent one of the major vertebrate pests based on the severity of economic losses caused to the sugarcane industry in this state. Pocket gophers cause significant damage in over 200,000 ha of sugarcane fields. In this study, a total of 66,560 stalks were examined for damage. Total percentage damaged was 20.67. Economic loss caused by pocket gopher was estimated at approximately $951 in one grower processor’s crop based on the 1998-99 price for raw sugar ($25 dollars/ton). Losses due to this pest species are probably underestimated because many sugarcane industries could not or did not provide loss estimates.

The fundamental assumption in the management of predators is that reducing predator numbers will reduce their predation impact on livestock. Research on dingoes (Canis lupus dingo) has shown this assumption to be incorrect in beef production areas in northern and western Queensland. Aerial and ground baiting with 1080 (fluoroacetate) is the principal dingo-control method used in extensive pastoral areas of Australia. This paper compares four approaches to measure the effectiveness of these control programs. Dingo abundance was reduced in 11 of 13 baiting campaigns monitored with almost two-thirds of these producing >50% reduction. However, concurrent decline in dingo abundance occurred in non-baited areas due to seasonal changes in dingo populations. When this was taken into account, less than half of the control programs produced >50% reduction. The time taken for dingoes to recolonize baited areas is also an important measure of effectiveness. In two-thirds of the control programs, conducted in the first nine months of the year, dingoes recolonized prior to the period of peak calving (November/December) when the biggest threat to calves existed. The timing and the scale of control programs affect the rate of re-colonization. Calf loss was subsequently higher and occurred more frequently in baited areas compared to non-baited areas. Seasonal conditions, the status of prey populations, and the impact of control programs on social organization and prey selection, are key factors affecting calf predation. Control programs should be assessed by measuring impact rather than changes in predator numbers. The assumption that a direct relationship exists between predator numbers and impact is not valid for dingoes in beef production areas in northern Australia.

Fox predation has long been suspected as a major cause of lamb death in southern Australia. The response of farmers has been to poison foxes using sodium monofluoroacetate (compound 1080). This has become more widespread in recent years due to a number of factors including the reduced returns from sale of skins which has made shooting foxes unprofitable. In a replicated experiment we investigated the effect of fox control on lamb survival. Fox baiting was implemented at three levels; no baiting, baiting once a year before lambing (the recommended practice), and baiting three times a year. This was carried out on sheep properties with ultrasounded flocks over three years. The experiment was conducted in central New South Wales, Australia, in an area where wild dogs and native dingoes had been eradicated. Foxes, an introduced species, were the major mammalian predators of lambs in the district, as estimated from previous post-mortems of lamb carcasses. No significant difference was detected in lambing, as measured by the number of lambs per ewe at lamb marking 8 to 10 weeks after birth, however, there was a significant effect of fox control on the number of healthy lambs killed by foxes assessed by lamb post-mortems. The possible reasons for this result are discussed including features of the experimental design and the level of replication.

Bennett’s wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) was introduced to South Canterbury in New Zealand’s South Island in 1974. The species rapidly increased in numbers, and by the 1940s had increased to levels where it had become a significant agricultural pest. In 1947, a coordinated wallaby control program employing teams of shooters commenced. However, wallaby numbers stayed high, and it was not until the early 1960s when aerially sown 1080 baits were used that a significant reduction in wallaby numbers was achieved. However, the need to de-stock areas prior to application of the baits prompted fanners to demand control by shooting teams rather than poison in order to achieve ongoing control. Wallaby control in South Canterbury is managed under a Regional Pest Management Strategy, relying on shooting as the primary form of control, but using aerially distributed 1080 baits and 1080 gel applied to broadleaf foliage to a limited extent when and where necessary. Wallabies are continuing to expand their range into the central alpine region adjacent to South Canterbury where they are becoming a conservation threat on public lands. In this study, we re-analyzed 13 years of detailed hunting return data in order to derive a synoptic model of wallaby population growth relative to density and prevailing rainfall. We also estimated cost-effectiveness models for control employing shooting teams, aerially distributed 1080 baits, and 1080 gel applied to foliage. We then explored the cost-effectiveness of alternative strategies for wallaby control by combining the models predicting wallaby population growth with those predicting variation in the cost-effectiveness of available techniques. The implications of this study for ongoing wallaby control for mitigation of agricultural and conservation impacts are discussed.

Information concerning hispid pocket gopher (Orthogeomys hispidus hispidus) damage to sugarcane and the efficacy of sodium monofluroacetate (Compound 1080) treatments for control of this pest were obtained for the State of Veracruz, Mexico. Pocket gophers represent one of the major vertebrate pests based on the severity of economic losses caused to the sugarcane industry in this state. Pocket gophers cause significant damage in over 200,000 ha of sugarcane fields. In this study, a total of 66,560 stalks were examined for damage. Total percentage damaged was 20.67. Economic loss caused by pocket gopher was estimated at approximately $951 in one grower processor’s crop based on the 1998-99 price for raw sugar ($25 dollars/ton). Losses due to this pest species are probably underestimated because many sugarcane industries could not or did not provide loss estimates.

Dingoes and other wild dogs cause substantial damage and control expense in many Australian environments. The main methods of control are exclusion fencing, poisoning with 1080, and trapping. Strategies to mitigate livestock predation by wild dogs include; enterprise substitution, the reduction of wild dog populations, and baited buffer zones between wild dog country and sheep country. Damage functions show significant positive relationships between density indices and the losses caused by predation for both sheep and cattle enterprises. However, descriptive and explanatory models fitted the data poorly. A strategic approach to the management of wild dogs that aims to reduce predation on livestock while allowing the conservation of wild living dingoes is also outlined.

In Western Australia dried meat baits containing 1080 are used extensively by agricultural and conservation organisations to control foxes and dingoes for the protection of agricultural production and native fauna. Field trials were conducted to assess 1080 loss from dried meat baits and this required the analysis of over five hundred baits. Because of this large number of baits it was essential to have a simple and efficient 1080 extraction procedure and method of 1080 analysis. In this study three methods of 1080 extraction and the new bioassay method for 1080 analysis were investigated. A simple and cost-effective 1080 extraction method using water with a 98% 1080 recovery rate was developed and modifications to the bioassay method were made.Factory-produced 1080 dried meat baits were laid in the field during different seasons at four locations in Western Australia, samples were collected over time and analysed for 1080 content using the bioassay. Rainfall was recorded and temperature data was collected for each site. Baits were exposed to the elements but were placed in mesh or wire cages to restrict invertebrate attack and prevent removal by vertebrates. Some baits were placed on the surface and others were buried. Initially 1080 loss from baits from all 4 sites was minimal, ranging from 0 - 21% at day 7 - 9. Further loss was gradual even when rainfall was recorded. Generally baits had to be exposed to at least 50 mm of rain before 1080 loss increased to 50%. At some sites baits continued to remain toxic to foxes even after long exposure. The mean 1080 content of baits from the Carnarvon site at day 226 was 2.0 mg (55% of the mean 1080 content of baits at day zero) with 137 mm of rainfall recorded for that period. Loss of 1080 from baits buried occurred at a faster rate than from baits placed on the surface during the same time period. By day 14 no 1080 was detected in the buried baits compared to the 68% detected in the surface baits. Under certain conditions

New Zealand currently has large scale possum and rabbit operations being carried out on about 103 of its land area. Education and training are integral to possum control in New Zealand because of the heavy reliance that the control agencies in New Zealand place on toxic baiting with 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate). Education of the general public is treated as a high priority since without their approval many of the operations would not be carried out. It is equally important that school children are advised on what toxic baits look like and why pest control operations are required. Training of pest control staff is also considered important as it is vital that all staff are well trained in the latest technology and at the same time can answer inquiries with the latest results of research.

To determine the risk of secondary poisoning for animals preying on sub-lethally poisoned brushtail possums, captive possums were treated with near-lethal doses of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) or brodifacoum, and toxicant concentrations in blood and tissue were monitored over time. Sodium monofluoroacetate was rapidly eliminated from the blood (within three days). Brodifacoum was retained in the liver and, to a lesser extent, the muscle of possums for eight months after dosing. To determine the potential risk for animals scavenging on the carcasses of possums poisoned with cholecalciferol, cats were fed poisoned carcasses for six days. No changes in behavior, appetite, or body weight were observed. Serum calcium concentrations increased slightly, but remained within the normal range for cats.

To determine the risk of secondary poisoning for animals preying on sub-lethally poisoned brushtail possums, captive possums were treated with near-lethal doses of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) or brodifacoum, and toxicant concentrations in blood and tissue were monitored over time. Sodium monofluoroacetate was rapidly eliminated from the blood (within three days). Brodifacoum was retained in the liver and, to a lesser extent, the muscle of possums for eight months after dosing. To determine the potential risk for animals scavenging on the carcasses of possums poisoned with cholecalciferol, cats were fed poisoned carcasses for six days. No changes in behavior, appetite, or body weight were observed. Serum calcium concentrations increased slightly, but remained within the normal range for cats.

New Zealand currently has large scale possum and rabbit operations being carried out on about 103 of its land area. Education and training are integral to possum control in New Zealand because of the heavy reliance that the control agencies in New Zealand place on toxic baiting with 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate). Education of the general public is treated as a high priority since without their approval many of the operations would not be carried out. It is equally important that school children are advised on what toxic baits look like and why pest control operations are required. Training of pest control staff is also considered important as it is vital that all staff are well trained in the latest technology and at the same time can answer inquiries with the latest results of research.

Aerial delivery of 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate) baits is the main technique for reducing populations of New Zealand's foremost vertebrate pest, the Australian brushtail possum, in large areas of inaccesible country. Surveys after pilot-controlled aerial sowing of baits in seven operations in forests showed that inaccurate navigation along the swaths left up to half the target zone untreated. Kill was estimated to average 75%. Inadequate coverage with baits was therefore believed to be a major factor in the survival of possums during aerial control operations. This was confirmed in field trials using rhodamine B as a biomarker to reveal acceptance of non-toxic baits. More possums were unmarked in partially treated blocks than in completely treated blocks. After a large-scale aerial control operation, proportionally more possums survived in untreated gaps than in treated areas. Six operations that used navigation guidance systems (Decca Flying Flagman and GPS) yielded complete coverage and high levels of kill (mean of 92%) in five. Precision sowing of possum baits prevents survival of possums by failure to encounter baits, and enables lower rates of bait application. This will give large cost savings and improved environmental safety. A small proportion of a population may still not be targeted because of individual dislike of bait or failure to encounter baits because animals stayed in the forest canopy during operations. Development of more palatable and longer lived baits may facilitate local extermination of possums.

The Levant vole, Microtus guentheri, is a pest of most of the field crops in Israel. It lives in gallery systems, the openings of which are clearly visible, and is active above ground mainly at night. Its activity was assessed by plugging the burrow openings (holes) and, after three nights, counting the number of reopened holes. The efficacy of control by whole wheat toxic baits was determined by counting the number of reopened holes before and after the treatment in random squares. Three chemicals were tested: sodium fluoroacetate, zinc phosphide and brodifacoum. The bait was applied either by hand, airplane, or centrifugal spreader. The period between treatment and post-treatment count was one week for the two acute rodenticides, and at least two weeks for the anticoagulant baits. Satisfactory results were obtained: 1) by a 2% zinc phosphide bait, with 0.7 g inserted manually into the voles' holes, or distributed at rates between 4.2 to 12.2 kg/ha; 2) by a 0.05% sodium fluoroacetate bait, with 0.2 g being inserted manually into the holes, or distributed at rates of 1.6 to 4.0 kg/ha; and 3) by 0.005 % brodifacoum bait, with 3 g being inserted manually into the burrows, or broadcast at rates of 5.8 and 8.7 kg/ha.

The Levant vole, Microtus guentheri, is a pest of most of the field crops in Israel. It lives in gallery systems, the openings of which are clearly visible, and is active above ground mainly at night. Its activity was assessed by plugging the burrow openings (holes) and, after three nights, counting the number of reopened holes. The efficacy of control by whole wheat toxic baits was determined by counting the number of reopened holes before and after the treatment in random squares. Three chemicals were tested: sodium fluoroacetate, zinc phosphide and brodifacoum. The bait was applied either by hand, airplane, or centrifugal spreader. The period between treatment and post-treatment count was one week for the two acute rodenticides, and at least two weeks for the anticoagulant baits. Satisfactory results were obtained: 1) by a 2% zinc phosphide bait, with 0.7 g inserted manually into the voles' holes, or distributed at rates between 4.2 to 12.2 kg/ha; 2) by a 0.05% sodium fluoroacetate bait, with 0.2 g being inserted manually into the holes, or distributed at rates of 1.6 to 4.0 kg/ha; and 3) by 0.005 % brodifacoum bait, with 3 g being inserted manually into the burrows, or broadcast at rates of 5.8 and 8.7 kg/ha.

Aerial delivery of 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate) baits is the main technique for reducing populations of New Zealand's foremost vertebrate pest, the Australian brushtail possum, in large areas of inaccesible country. Surveys after pilot-controlled aerial sowing of baits in seven operations in forests showed that inaccurate navigation along the swaths left up to half the target zone untreated. Kill was estimated to average 75%. Inadequate coverage with baits was therefore believed to be a major factor in the survival of possums during aerial control operations. This was confirmed in field trials using rhodamine B as a biomarker to reveal acceptance of non-toxic baits. More possums were unmarked in partially treated blocks than in completely treated blocks. After a large-scale aerial control operation, proportionally more possums survived in untreated gaps than in treated areas. Six operations that used navigation guidance systems (Decca Flying Flagman and GPS) yielded complete coverage and high levels of kill (mean of 92%) in five. Precision sowing of possum baits prevents survival of possums by failure to encounter baits, and enables lower rates of bait application. This will give large cost savings and improved environmental safety. A small proportion of a population may still not be targeted because of individual dislike of bait or failure to encounter baits because animals stayed in the forest canopy during operations. Development of more palatable and longer lived baits may facilitate local extermination of possums.

Vomiting is a characteristic, although undesirable effect when using Compound 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate) as a method of predator control for coyotes. Compound 1080 meat baits with (treatment) and without (control) an antiemetic, metoclopramide hydrochloride (MH), were fed to captive coyotes to determine whether MH would prevent vomiting. All treatment and control animals died as a result of consuming the 1080 bait with no difference between the groups in time from bait consumption to death. There was no significant difference between the number of treatment and control animals that vomited after consuming the baits. Likewise there was no difference between the treatment and control groups in the time from consuming 1080 to vomiting, the duration of the vomiting period, or the number of times each animal vomited. Despite indications in the literature to the contrary, MH did not prevent 1080-induced vomiting in coyotes.

Many vertebrate pesticides used by the Bureau of Biological Survey at the turn of the century were registered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) beginning in 1960 with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). A review of archives and other documents at the Denver Wildlife Research Center (DWRC) has shown that a total of 72 federal registrations were established by the USFWS between 1960 and 1985. Because of increased regulation by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), selective transfers from USFWS to USDA, voluntary cancellations, conversions to state local need registrations, and a reduced development pace, there are now only 21 federal vertebrate pesticide registrations. They are maintained by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) for the Animal Damage Control (ADC) program. As a result of a 1988 Amendment to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA 88), DWRC initiated in 1989 an extensive reregistration program for ADC's vertebrate pesticides. In the past three years, DWRC and its cooperators have submitted 188 studies in support of the reregistration of products containing strychnine, sodium cyanide, zinc phosphide, compound 1080, sodium nitrate, carbon, DRC-1339, and PA-14. Since 1989, the reregistration of these 8 active ingredients has taken priority over the development of new vertebrate pesticides at DWRC in order to concentrate on gathering data for these chemicals of the past. New tools to mitigate human and wildlife conflicts must continue to be the goal of present and future federal research.

To improve feral cat control we developed a dry pelleted toxic bait and evaluated the potential of lures. A polymer fish meal bait was preferred by cats from a range of bait types tested. L-alanine further increased bait acceptance by cats in pen trials and catnip may have the potential to increase field acceptance and target specificity. An oral LD90 of 0.38 mg/kg was established for sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) in feral cats voluntarily eating surface-loaded baits. Acute toxicity to cats of warfarin, cholecalciferol, and gliftor was tested. However, because the cat proved highly sensitive to 1080, we recommend its use at a dose of 2 mg per cat bait. In preliminary field trials of bait acceptance using non-toxic polymer bait (without flavours or attractants), marked with the plasma marker iophenoxic acid, 50% of 39 cats caught within 3 weeks of laying the baits were marked. Subsequently polymer bait, surface coated with 1080 was used in the successful eradication of feral cats from Matakohe Island (37 ha), Whangarei Harbour, New ZeaJand.

Animals in Australia vary greatly in their sensitivity to 1080 poison, with known LD50's ranging from 0.11 to over 800 mg kg-1. Many native species, particularly in western Australia, have evolved tolerances to 1080 through ingestion of native plants that contain fluoroacetate or prey that consume those plants. Despite this, some native species, particularly a few herbivorous mammals, birds and rodents, could be poisoned during control campaigns against vertebrate pests. Field studies indicate that poisoning campaigns are not significantly affecting populations of common non-target animals, but further impact studies are required on vulnerable, rare, endangered, or uncommon species.

Possum control in New Zealand is dependent on the use of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) and cyanide. Although 1080 is highly effective, its use is restricted to government staff. Cyanide is available for a wider group of licensed operators, but cyanide "shyness" reduces its effectiveness. An acute toxicity programme has been set up to identify non-anticoagulant toxins that could be used safely by farmers. Dose-ranging studies showed that possums are susceptible to cholecalciferol, calciferol, gliftor, alpha-chloralose, and nicotine, but not to bromethalin. As lethal doses for these toxins have been ascertained, which of them are likely to be cost-effective and safe alternatives to 1080 now needs to be established. Bait palatability and field studies will then be undertaken with the most promising candidates.

The acute oral LD50 of Compound 1080 to magpies was estimated at 1.78 mg/kg indoors, 1.91 mg/kg outdoors in summer, and 2.30 mg/kg outdoors in winter. Postmortem 1080 residues were detected in 75 of76 treated birds. Higher doses yielded higher 1080 residues. Within dose levels, birds surviving longer carried lower residues. In a separate test, an average residue of 0.09 ppm was found in 8 birds treated at 1.59 mg/kg and euthanized 24 h post dosing. The adjusted dietary LC50 of Compound 1080 to magpies tested indoors was estimated at 16 ppm. During LC50 tests, the influence of 1080 on food consumption and bird weight varied. Birds receiving low doses were unaffected and those receiving high doses died quickly. Birds that were affected but did not die quickly, usually lost weight but only slightly reduced food intake. All birds that died had detectable 1080 residue in breast muscle. Birds fed higher 1080 dietary concentrations probably exhibited higher residues postmortem. Our adjusted average LD50 (2.12 mg/kg) appeared somewhat higher than reported in the literature; nonetheless, magpies are very sensitive to 1080. No sex differences were noted. Age, metabolic influences, or cold temperatures might explain the high LD50 value estimated for winter. The detection of 1080 residue in tissue samples is a useful tool for assessing 1080 exposure in magpies−but it might not be unequivocal.

Many vertebrate pesticides used by the Bureau of Biological Survey at the turn of the century were registered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) beginning in 1960 with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). A review of archives and other documents at the Denver Wildlife Research Center (DWRC) has shown that a total of 72 federal registrations were established by the USFWS between 1960 and 1985. Because of increased regulation by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), selective transfers from USFWS to USDA, voluntary cancellations, conversions to state local need registrations, and a reduced development pace, there are now only 21 federal vertebrate pesticide registrations. They are maintained by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) for the Animal Damage Control (ADC) program. As a result of a 1988 Amendment to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA 88), DWRC initiated in 1989 an extensive reregistration program for ADC's vertebrate pesticides. In the past three years, DWRC and its cooperators have submitted 188 studies in support of the reregistration of products containing strychnine, sodium cyanide, zinc phosphide, compound 1080, sodium nitrate, carbon, DRC-1339, and PA-14. Since 1989, the reregistration of these 8 active ingredients has taken priority over the development of new vertebrate pesticides at DWRC in order to concentrate on gathering data for these chemicals of the past. New tools to mitigate human and wildlife conflicts must continue to be the goal of present and future federal research.

Animals in Australia vary greatly in their sensitivity to 1080 poison, with known LD50's ranging from 0.11 to over 800 mg kg-1. Many native species, particularly in western Australia, have evolved tolerances to 1080 through ingestion of native plants that contain fluoroacetate or prey that consume those plants. Despite this, some native species, particularly a few herbivorous mammals, birds and rodents, could be poisoned during control campaigns against vertebrate pests. Field studies indicate that poisoning campaigns are not significantly affecting populations of common non-target animals, but further impact studies are required on vulnerable, rare, endangered, or uncommon species.

Vomiting is a characteristic, although undesirable effect when using Compound 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate) as a method of predator control for coyotes. Compound 1080 meat baits with (treatment) and without (control) an antiemetic, metoclopramide hydrochloride (MH), were fed to captive coyotes to determine whether MH would prevent vomiting. All treatment and control animals died as a result of consuming the 1080 bait with no difference between the groups in time from bait consumption to death. There was no significant difference between the number of treatment and control animals that vomited after consuming the baits. Likewise there was no difference between the treatment and control groups in the time from consuming 1080 to vomiting, the duration of the vomiting period, or the number of times each animal vomited. Despite indications in the literature to the contrary, MH did not prevent 1080-induced vomiting in coyotes.

Possum control in New Zealand is dependent on the use of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) and cyanide. Although 1080 is highly effective, its use is restricted to government staff. Cyanide is available for a wider group of licensed operators, but cyanide "shyness" reduces its effectiveness. An acute toxicity programme has been set up to identify non-anticoagulant toxins that could be used safely by farmers. Dose-ranging studies showed that possums are susceptible to cholecalciferol, calciferol, gliftor, alpha-chloralose, and nicotine, but not to bromethalin. As lethal doses for these toxins have been ascertained, which of them are likely to be cost-effective and safe alternatives to 1080 now needs to be established. Bait palatability and field studies will then be undertaken with the most promising candidates.

The acute oral LD50 of Compound 1080 to magpies was estimated at 1.78 mg/kg indoors, 1.91 mg/kg outdoors in summer, and 2.30 mg/kg outdoors in winter. Postmortem 1080 residues were detected in 75 of76 treated birds. Higher doses yielded higher 1080 residues. Within dose levels, birds surviving longer carried lower residues. In a separate test, an average residue of 0.09 ppm was found in 8 birds treated at 1.59 mg/kg and euthanized 24 h post dosing. The adjusted dietary LC50 of Compound 1080 to magpies tested indoors was estimated at 16 ppm. During LC50 tests, the influence of 1080 on food consumption and bird weight varied. Birds receiving low doses were unaffected and those receiving high doses died quickly. Birds that were affected but did not die quickly, usually lost weight but only slightly reduced food intake. All birds that died had detectable 1080 residue in breast muscle. Birds fed higher 1080 dietary concentrations probably exhibited higher residues postmortem. Our adjusted average LD50 (2.12 mg/kg) appeared somewhat higher than reported in the literature; nonetheless, magpies are very sensitive to 1080. No sex differences were noted. Age, metabolic influences, or cold temperatures might explain the high LD50 value estimated for winter. The detection of 1080 residue in tissue samples is a useful tool for assessing 1080 exposure in magpies−but it might not be unequivocal.

To improve feral cat control we developed a dry pelleted toxic bait and evaluated the potential of lures. A polymer fish meal bait was preferred by cats from a range of bait types tested. L-alanine further increased bait acceptance by cats in pen trials and catnip may have the potential to increase field acceptance and target specificity. An oral LD90 of 0.38 mg/kg was established for sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) in feral cats voluntarily eating surface-loaded baits. Acute toxicity to cats of warfarin, cholecalciferol, and gliftor was tested. However, because the cat proved highly sensitive to 1080, we recommend its use at a dose of 2 mg per cat bait. In preliminary field trials of bait acceptance using non-toxic polymer bait (without flavours or attractants), marked with the plasma marker iophenoxic acid, 50% of 39 cats caught within 3 weeks of laying the baits were marked. Subsequently polymer bait, surface coated with 1080 was used in the successful eradication of feral cats from Matakohe Island (37 ha), Whangarei Harbour, New ZeaJand.

Adsorption of toxic gases on the surfaces of various synthetic and natural tubing is a critical factor when the tubing is used for sampling purposes. The affinity of the tubing's surface for toxic gases may be either reversible or irreversible, i.e., the toxic gases may be involved in some type of chemical reaction with the tubing or with another previously adsorbed material, or gases may be reversibly adsorbed. This research explores the adsorption characteristics of toxic gases on the surfaces of tubing commonly used in the laboratory. The tubing used in this study was connected to the inlet port of a real-time gas monitor. At the start of the run, a known concentration of gas, generated with a toxic gas diluter, was introduced into the sample tubing at a flow rate of 5 L/min. We measured the time it took for the gas to flow through the tubing and be detected by the gas monitor.

Efficacy of Compound 1080 LP Collars was studied under pen and field conditions. Coyotes poisoned themselves by attacking collared sheep and biting the collars. In 54 pen tests where 1 or 2 captive coyotes had opportunity to attack 1 collared lamb, 41 lambs were attacked and 26 collars were punctured. Of 25 different coyotes offered lambs with collars containing 5 or 10 mg sodium fluoroacetate (FAC)/ml, 23 coyotes attacked and 21 died after collars were punctured in their first (n = 17), second (n = 3), or fifth (n = 1) test. For 11 captive coyotes that punctured rubber collars, the average time to death was 217 min (range 115 to 436 min). Collars were placed on approximately 3 percent of the sheep on 4 Idaho and 7 Montana sheep ranches. Coyotes attacked 67 uncollared and 68 collared sheep, punctured 32 collars, and may have punctured 2 other collars that were not found. Documented rates of collar puncture were 48% for all attacks on collared sheep and 64% for neck-throat attacks. Eight collars were punctured on fences, thorns or brush. All coyotes that punctured collars probably died, but only 3 dead coyotes were found. Adverse impacts on humans, domestic animals, and nontarget wildlife were not seen. The LP Collar is a safe, effective, and selective technique for removing coyotes that attack sheep.

With U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's approval of certification and training of sodium monofluoroacetate (Compound 1080) Livestock Protection Collar applicators by the Texas Department of Agriculture in April 1988, use of collars by ranchers was made possible. This paper presents data from 1988 and 1989 on use of Livestock Protection Collars to protect domestic sheep and goats subject to coyote (Canis latrans) predation. Information concerning coyote puncture of collars, loss of collars to other factors, and targeting strategies used by ranchers are discussed. Success of collar use is compared to other predator control methods used by ranchers.

Vertebrate pest control measures may have an impact on nontarget wildlife. Bird and rodent control programs using avicides and rodenticides in California have been, and are currently being, examined by the California Department of Fish and Game on a routine basis. Each pesticide used has its deleterious side effects. This paper reviews these side effects and suggests possible future impacts which could be expected.