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Gravitational memory effects and the BMS freedoms exhibited at future null infinity have recently been resolved and utilized in numerical relativity simulations. With this, gravitational wave models and our understanding of the fundamental nature of general relativity have been vastly improved. In this paper, we review the history and intuition behind memory effects and BMS symmetries, how they manifest in gravitational waves, and how controlling the infinite number of BMS freedoms of numerical relativity simulations can crucially improve the waveform models that are used by gravitational wave detectors. We reiterate the fact that, with memory effects and BMS symmetries, not only can these next-generation numerical waveforms be used to observe never-before-seen physics, but they can also be used to test GR and learn new astrophysical information about our universe., Comment: 20 pages, 8 figures. Submitted to CGQ's focus issue: Gravitational-Wave Memory Effects: From Theory to Observation

The ringdown portion of a binary black hole merger consists of a sum of modes, each containing an infinite number of tones that are exponentially damped sinusoids. In principle, these can be measured as gravitational-waves with observatories like LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA, however in practice it is unclear how many tones can be meaningfully resolved. We investigate the consistency and resolvability of the overtones of the quadrupolar l = m = 2 mode by starting at late times when the gravitational waveform is expected to be well-approximated by the l m n = 220 tone alone. We present a Bayesian inference framework to measure the tones in numerical relativity data. We measure tones at different start times, checking for consistency: we classify a tone as stably recovered if and only if the 95% credible intervals for amplitude and phase at time t overlap with the credible intervals at all subsequent times. We test the first four overtones of the fundamental mode and find that the 220 and 221 tones can be measured consistently with the inclusion of additional overtones. The 222 tone measurements can be stabilised when we include the 223 tone, but only in a narrow time window, after which it is too weak to measure. The 223 tone recovery appears to be unstable, and does not become stable with the introduction of the 224 tone. Within our framework, the ringdown of the fundamental mode of binary black hole waveforms can be self-consistently described by three to four tones, which are stable from 10 M after the peak strain. However, additional tones are not obviously required because the fit amplitudes are consistent with zero. We conclude that recent claims of overtone detection are not necessarily an exercise in over-fitting; the observed tones can be self-consistently modelled, although, not until ~ 10 M from peak strain with our four-tone model., Comment: 13 pages, 8 figures, 2 tables

We investigate quadratic quasinormal mode coupling in black hole spacetime through numerical simulations of single perturbed black holes using both numerical relativity and second-order black hole perturbation theory. Focusing on the dominant $\ell=|m|=2$ quadrupolar modes, we find good agreement (within $\sim10\%$) between these approaches, with discrepancies attributed to truncation error and uncertainties from mode fitting. Our results align with earlier studies extracting the coupling coefficients from select binary black hole merger simulations, showing consistency for the same remnant spins. Notably, the coupling coefficient is insensitive to a diverse range of initial data, including configurations that led to a significant (up to $5\%$) increase in the remnant black hole mass. These findings present opportunities for testing the nonlinear dynamics of general relativity with ground-based gravitational wave observatories. Lastly, we provide evidence of a bifurcation in coupling coefficients between counter-rotating and co-rotating quasinormal modes as black hole spin increases.

Discontinuous Galerkin (DG) methods for solving elliptic equations are gaining popularity in the computational physics community for their high-order spectral convergence and their potential for parallelization on computing clusters. However, problems in numerical relativity with extremely stretched grids, such as initial data problems for binary black holes that impose boundary conditions at large distances from the black holes, have proven challenging for DG methods. To alleviate this problem we have developed a primal DG scheme that is generically applicable to a large class of elliptic equations, including problems on curved and extremely stretched grids. The DG scheme accommodates two widely used initial data formulations in numerical relativity, namely the puncture formulation and the extended conformal thin-sandwich (XCTS) formulation. We find that our DG scheme is able to stretch the grid by a factor of $\sim 10^9$ and hence allows to impose boundary conditions at large distances. The scheme converges exponentially with resolution both for the smooth XCTS problem and for the non-smooth puncture problem. With this method we are able to generate high-quality initial data for binary black hole problems using a parallelizable DG scheme. The code is publicly available in the open-source SpECTRE numerical relativity code., Comment: 12 pages, 10 figures. Results are reproducible with the ancillary input files

Numerical-relativity surrogate models for both black-hole merger waveforms and remnants have emerged as important tools in gravitational-wave astronomy. While producing very accurate predictions, their applicability is limited to the region of the parameter space where numerical-relativity simulations are available and computationally feasible. Notably, this excludes extreme mass ratios. We present a machine-learning approach to extend the validity of existing and future numerical-relativity surrogate models toward the test-particle limit, targeting in particular the mass and spin of post-merger black-hole remnants. Our model is trained on both numerical-relativity simulations at comparable masses and analytical predictions at extreme mass ratios. We extend the gaussian-process-regression model NRSur7dq4Remnant, validate its performance via cross validation, and test its accuracy against additional numerical-relativity runs. Our fit, which we dub NRSur7dq4EmriRemnant, reaches an accuracy that is comparable to or higher than that of existing remnant models while providing robust predictions for arbitrary mass ratios., Comment: 10 pages, 3 figures. Published in PRD. Model publicly available at https://pypi.org/project/surfinBH

We present an adaptive-order positivity-preserving conservative finite-difference scheme that allows a high-order solution away from shocks and discontinuities while guaranteeing positivity and robustness at discontinuities. This is achieved by monitoring the relative power in the highest mode of the reconstructed polynomial and reducing the order when the polynomial series no longer converges. Our approach is similar to the multidimensional optimal order detection (MOOD) strategy, but differs in several ways. The approach is a priori and so does not require retaking a time step. It can also readily be combined with positivity-preserving flux limiters that have gained significant traction in computational astrophysics and numerical relativity. This combination ultimately guarantees a physical solution both during reconstruction and time stepping. We demonstrate the capabilities of the method using a standard suite of very challenging 1d, 2d, and 3d general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics test problems., Comment: 48 pages, 17 figures. Matches published version, minor changes only

To accurately perform black hole spectroscopy, it is essential to know which quasinormal modes dominate astrophysical ringdown signals. In this Letter, we present a phenomenological description of the quasinormal modes that are excited in the ringdowns of comparable mass, quasi-circular precessing binary black hole coalescences. By analyzing an exhaustive catalog of numerical relativity simulations, we confirm that the relative fundamental quasinormal mode amplitudes of precessing systems are related to those of non-precessing systems by a simple rotation, and that additional structure in the spectrum is connected to the system's kick velocity and other asymmetries in the orbital dynamics. We find that the ringdowns of precessing systems need not be dominated by the ${(\ell,m)=(2,\pm 2)}$ quasinormal modes. These results build upon previous works on waveform modeling, and are consistent with a recent ringdown analysis of the LIGO-Virgo gravitational wave signal GW190521., Comment: Data Release and Analysis Scripts: https://github.com/HengruiPrinceton/precession_ringdown

The gravitational wave strain emitted by a perturbed black hole (BH) ringing down is typically modeled analytically using first-order BH perturbation theory. In this Letter we show that second-order effects are necessary for modeling ringdowns from BH merger simulations. Focusing on the strain's $(\ell,m)=(4,4)$ angular harmonic, we show the presence of a quadratic effect across a range of binary BH mass ratios that agrees with theoretical expectations. We find that the quadratic $(4,4)$ mode's amplitude exhibits quadratic scaling with the fundamental $(2,2)$ mode -- its parent mode. The nonlinear mode's amplitude is comparable to or even larger than that of the linear $(4,4)$ mode. Therefore, correctly modeling the ringdown of higher harmonics -- improving mode mismatches by up to 2 orders of magnitude -- requires the inclusion of nonlinear effects., Comment: 6+2 pages, 4 figures, 1 table. Matches PRL version

The Bondi-van der Burg-Metzner-Sachs (BMS) group, which uniquely describes the symmetries of asymptotic infinity and therefore of the gravitational waves that propagate there, has become increasingly important for accurate modeling of waveforms. In particular, waveform models, such as post-Newtonian (PN) expressions, numerical relativity (NR), and black hole perturbation theory, produce results that are in different BMS frames. Consequently, to build a model for the waveforms produced during the merging of compact objects, which ideally would be a hybridization of PN, NR, and black hole perturbation theory, one needs a fast and robust method for fixing the BMS freedoms. In this work, we present the first means of fixing the entire BMS freedom of NR waveforms to match the frame of either PN waveforms or black hole perturbation theory. We achieve this by finding the BMS transformations that change certain charges in a prescribed way -- e.g., finding the center-of-mass transformation that maps the center-of-mass charge to a mean of zero. We find that this new method is 20 times faster, and more correct when mapping to the superrest frame, than previous methods that relied on optimization algorithms. Furthermore, in the course of developing this charge-based frame fixing method, we compute the PN expression for the Moreschi supermomentum to 3PN order without spins and 2PN order with spins. This Moreschi supermomentum is effectively equivalent to the energy flux or the null memory contribution at future null infinity $\mathscr{I}^{+}$. From this PN calculation, we also compute oscillatory ($m\not=0$ modes) and spin-dependent memory terms that have not been identified previously or have been missing from strain expressions in the post-Newtonian literature., Comment: 16+4 pages with 2 appendices, 4 figures, 1 table

The gravitational wave strain emitted by a perturbed black hole (BH) ringing down is typically modeled analytically using first-order BH perturbation theory. In this Letter we show that second-order effects are necessary for modeling ringdowns from BH merger simulations. Focusing on the strain's (ℓ,m)=(4,4) angular harmonic, we show the presence of a quadratic effect across a range of binary BH mass ratios that agrees with theoretical expectations. We find that the quadratic (4,4) mode amplitude exhibits quadratic scaling with the fundamental (2,2) mode -- its parent mode. The nonlinear mode's amplitude is comparable to or even larger than that of the linear (4,4) modes. Therefore correctly modeling ringdown -- improving mismatches by an order of magnitude -- requires the inclusion of nonlinear effects.

The gravitational wave strain emitted by a perturbed black hole (BH) ringing down is typically modeled analytically using first-order BH perturbation theory. In this Letter we show that second-order effects are necessary for modeling ringdowns from BH merger simulations. Focusing on the strain's $(\ell,m)=(4,4)$ angular harmonic, we show the presence of a quadratic effect across a range of binary BH mass ratios that agrees with theoretical expectations. We find that the quadratic $(4,4)$ mode's amplitude exhibits quadratic scaling with the fundamental $(2,2)$ mode -- its parent mode. The nonlinear mode's amplitude is comparable to or even larger than that of the linear $(4,4)$ mode. Therefore, correctly modeling the ringdown of higher harmonics -- improving mode mismatches by up to 2 orders of magnitude -- requires the inclusion of nonlinear effects., Comment: 6+2 pages, 4 figures, 1 table. Matches PRL version

Discontinuous Galerkin methods are popular because they can achieve high order where the solution is smooth, because they can capture shocks while needing only nearest-neighbor communication, and because they are relatively easy to formulate on complex meshes. We perform a detailed comparison of various limiting strategies presented in the literature applied to the equations of general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics. We compare the standard minmod/Lambda Pi(N) limiter, the hierarchical limiter of Krivodonova, the simple WENO limiter, the HWENO limiter, and a discontinuous Galerkin-finite-difference hybrid method. The ultimate goal is to understand what limiting strategies are able to robustly simulate magnetized Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff stars without any fine-tuning of parameters. Among the limiters explored here, the only limiting strategy we can endorse is a discontinuous Galerkin-finitedifference hybrid method.

Quasi-normal mode (QNM) modeling is an invaluable tool for characterizing remnant black holes, studying strong gravity, and testing GR. Only recently have QNM studies begun to focus on multimode fitting to numerical relativity (NR) strain waveforms. As GW observatories become even more sensitive they will be able to resolve higher-order modes. Consequently, multimode QNM fits will be critically important, and in turn require a more thorough treatment of the asymptotic frame at $\mathscr{I}^+$. The first main result of this work is a method for systematically fitting a QNM model containing many modes to a numerical waveform produced using Cauchy-characteristic extraction (CCE), an extraction technique which is known to resolve memory effects. We choose the modes to model based on their power contribution to the residual between numerical and model waveforms. We show that the all-mode strain mismatch improves by a factor of $\sim10^5$ when using multimode fitting as opposed to only fitting the $(2,\pm2,n)$ modes. Our most significant result addresses a critical point that has been overlooked in the QNM literature: the importance of matching the Bondi-van der Burg-Metzner-Sachs (BMS) frame of the numerical waveform to that of the QNM model. We show that by mapping the numerical waveforms$-$which exhibit the memory effect$-$to a BMS frame known as the super rest frame, there is an improvement of $\sim10^5$ in the all-mode strain mismatch compared to using a strain waveform whose BMS frame is not fixed. Furthermore, we find that by mapping CCE waveforms to the super rest frame, we can obtain all-mode mismatches that are, on average, a factor of $\sim4$ better than using the publicly-available extrapolated waveforms. We illustrate the effectiveness of these modeling enhancements by applying them to families of waveforms produced by NR and comparing our results to previous QNM studies., Comment: 17 + 2 pages, 11 figures, 2 tables

Quasi-normal mode (QNM) modeling is an invaluable tool for characterizing remnant black holes, studying strong gravity, and testing GR. Only recently have QNM studies begun to focus on multimode fitting to numerical relativity (NR) strain waveforms. As GW observatories become even more sensitive they will be able to resolve higher-order modes. Consequently, multimode QNM fits will be critically important, and in turn require a more thorough treatment of the asymptotic frame at $\mathscr{I}^+$. The first main result of this work is a method for systematically fitting a QNM model containing many modes to a numerical waveform produced using Cauchy-characteristic extraction (CCE), an extraction technique which is known to resolve memory effects. We choose the modes to model based on their power contribution to the residual between numerical and model waveforms. We show that the all-mode strain mismatch improves by a factor of $\sim10^5$ when using multimode fitting as opposed to only fitting the $(2,\pm2,n)$ modes. Our most significant result addresses a critical point that has been overlooked in the QNM literature: the importance of matching the Bondi-van der Burg-Metzner-Sachs (BMS) frame of the numerical waveform to that of the QNM model. We show that by mapping the numerical waveforms$-$which exhibit the memory effect$-$to a BMS frame known as the super rest frame, there is an improvement of $\sim10^5$ in the all-mode strain mismatch compared to using a strain waveform whose BMS frame is not fixed. Furthermore, we find that by mapping CCE waveforms to the super rest frame, we can obtain all-mode mismatches that are, on average, a factor of $\sim4$ better than using the publicly-available extrapolated waveforms. We illustrate the effectiveness of these modeling enhancements by applying them to families of waveforms produced by NR and comparing our results to previous QNM studies., Comment: 17 + 2 pages, 11 figures, 2 tables

Brownian coating thermal noise in detector test masses is limiting the sensitivity of current gravitational-wave detectors on Earth. Therefore, accurate numerical models can inform the ongoing effort to minimize Brownian coating thermal noise in current and future gravitational-wave detectors. Such numerical models typically require significant computational resources and time, and often involve closed-source commercial codes. In contrast, open-source codes give complete visibility and control of the simulated physics, enable direct assessment of the numerical accuracy, and support the reproducibility of results. In this article, we use the open-source SpECTRE numerical relativity code and adopt a novel discontinuous Galerkin numerical method to model Brownian coating thermal noise. We demonstrate that SpECTRE achieves significantly higher accuracy than a previous approach at a fraction of the computational cost. Furthermore, we numerically model Brownian coating thermal noise in multiple sub-wavelength crystalline coating layers for the first time. Our new numerical method has the potential to enable fast exploration of realistic mirror configurations, and hence to guide the search for optimal mirror geometries, beam shapes and coating materials for gravitational-wave detectors., Comment: 15 pages, 5 figures. Results are reproducible with the ancillary input files

Quasi-normal mode (QNM) modeling is an invaluable tool for characterizing remnant black holes, studying strong gravity, and testing GR. Only recently have QNM studies begun to focus on multimode fitting to numerical relativity (NR) strain waveforms. As GW observatories become even more sensitive they will be able to resolve higher-order modes. Consequently, multimode QNM fits will be critically important, and in turn require a more thorough treatment of the asymptotic frame at $\mathscr{I}^+$. The first main result of this work is a method for systematically fitting a QNM model containing many modes to a numerical waveform produced using Cauchy-characteristic extraction (CCE), an extraction technique which is known to resolve memory effects. We choose the modes to model based on their power contribution to the residual between numerical and model waveforms. We show that the all-mode strain mismatch improves by a factor of $\sim10^5$ when using multimode fitting as opposed to only fitting the $(2,\pm2,n)$ modes. Our most significant result addresses a critical point that has been overlooked in the QNM literature: the importance of matching the Bondi-van der Burg-Metzner-Sachs (BMS) frame of the numerical waveform to that of the QNM model. We show that by mapping the numerical waveforms$-$which exhibit the memory effect$-$to a BMS frame known as the super rest frame, there is an improvement of $\sim10^5$ in the all-mode strain mismatch compared to using a strain waveform whose BMS frame is not fixed. Furthermore, we find that by mapping CCE waveforms to the super rest frame, we can obtain all-mode mismatches that are, on average, a factor of $\sim4$ better than using the publicly-available extrapolated waveforms. We illustrate the effectiveness of these modeling enhancements by applying them to families of waveforms produced by NR and comparing our results to previous QNM studies., Comment: 17 + 2 pages, 11 figures, 2 tables

Discontinuous Galerkin methods are popular because they can achieve high order where the solution is smooth, because they can capture shocks while needing only nearest-neighbor communication, and because they are relatively easy to formulate on complex meshes. We perform a detailed comparison of various limiting strategies presented in the literature applied to the equations of general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics. We compare the standard minmod/$\Lambda\Pi^N$ limiter, the hierarchical limiter of Krivodonova, the simple WENO limiter, the HWENO limiter, and a discontinuous Galerkin-finite-difference hybrid method. The ultimate goal is to understand what limiting strategies are able to robustly simulate magnetized TOV stars without any fine-tuning of parameters. Among the limiters explored here, the only limiting strategy we can endorse is a discontinuous Galerkin-finite-difference hybrid method., Comment: matches published version. 21 pages, 12 figures. Added KH instability, TOV runs with classical limiters. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2109.11645