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Ripe sweet cherry fruit (Prunus avium L.) are susceptible to cracking during and after rainfall. Cracking is the final step in a series of events. According to the ‘Zipper model’, a localized bursting of cells causes swelling of cell walls. Swelling - in turn – reduces cell-to-cell adhesion thereby weakening the strained fruit skin. This – in turn - results in rupture of the skin and development of macroscopically visible cracks. Little is known about the mechanism of swelling and the factors affecting swelling. The objectives of the present study were to (1) identify the part of the cell wall that fails during formation of a crack, (2) establish methods to quantify cell wall swelling and identify the underlying mechanisms, (3) characterize cell wall swelling during fruit development and identify the cell wall fraction responsible for swelling, and (4) manipulate cell wall swelling using Ca salts. Light microscopy studies of macroscopically cracked fruit surfaces revealed, that cell wall swelling reduced cell-to-cell adhesion and caused cells to separate along their cell walls. When the surface of cracks was stained with monoclonal antibodies against specific polysaccharide epitopes, only LM19 that stains unesterified homogalacturonans strongly bound indicating exposure of pectins on the crack surface. Thus, failure of the pectin middle lamella caused the separation of adjacent cells. In vivo experiments on excised epidermal segments and in vitro studies using extracted cell walls revealed that swelling is a physical process that is completely reversible. The pressure exerted by the swelling cell wall was low and within the range of turgor values reported for sweet cherry. Swelling increased in the course of fruit development, particularly during early development (stage I and II). The cell wall fraction with the highest swelling ability were the pectins. Within the pectins, the hydrochloric acid-soluble fraction and the sodium hydroxide-soluble fraction were the mo

BBXs are B-Box zinc finger proteins that can act as transcription factors and regulators of protein complexes. Several BBX proteins play important roles in plant development. Two Arabidopsis thaliana microProteins belonging to the BBX family, named miP1a and miP1b, homotypically interact with and modulate the activity of other BBX proteins, including CONSTANS, which transcriptionally activates the florigen, FLOWERING LOCUS T. Arabidopsis plants overexpressing miP1a and miP1b showed delayed flowering. In tomato, the closest homologs of miP1a and miP1b are the microProteins SlBBX16 and SlBBX17. This study was aimed at investigating whether the constitutive expression of SlBBX16/17 in Arabidopsis and tomato impacted reproductive development. The heterologous expression of the two tomato microProteins in Arabidopsis caused a delay in the flowering transition; however, the effect was weaker than that observed when the native miP1a/b were overexpressed. In tomato, overexpression of SlBBX17 prolonged the flowering period; this effect was accompanied by downregulation of the flowering inhibitors Self Pruning (SP) and SP5G. SlBBX16 and SlBBX17 can hetero-oligomerize with TCMP-2, a cystine-knot peptide involved in flowering pattern regulation and early fruit development in tomato. The increased expression of both microProteins also caused alterations in tomato fruit development: we observed in the case of SlBBX17 a decrease in the number and size of ripe fruits as compared to WT plants, while for SlBBX16, a delay in fruit production up to the breaker stage. These effects were associated with changes in the expression of GA-responsive genes.

BBXs are B-Box zinc finger proteins that can act as transcription factors and regulators of protein complexes. Several BBX proteins play important roles in plant development. Two Arabidopsis thaliana microProteins belonging to the BBX family, named miP1a and miP1b, homotypically interact with and modulate the activity of other BBX proteins, including CONSTANS, which transcriptionally activates the florigen, FLOWERING LOCUS T. Arabidopsis plants overexpressing miP1a and miP1b showed delayed flowering. In tomato, the closest homologs of miP1a and miP1b are the microProteins SlBBX16 and SlBBX17. This study was aimed at investigating whether the constitutive expression of SlBBX16/17 in Arabidopsis and tomato impacted reproductive development. The heterologous expression of the two tomato microProteins in Arabidopsis caused a delay in the flowering transition; however, the effect was weaker than that observed when the native miP1a/b were overexpressed. In tomato, overexpression of SlBBX17 prolonged the flowering period; this effect was accompanied by downregulation of the flowering inhibitors Self Pruning (SP) and SP5G. SlBBX16 and SlBBX17 can hetero-oligomerize with TCMP-2, a cystine-knot peptide involved in flowering pattern regulation and early fruit development in tomato. The increased expression of both microProteins also caused alterations in tomato fruit development: we observed in the case of SlBBX17 a decrease in the number and size of ripe fruits as compared to WT plants, while for SlBBX16, a delay in fruit production up to the breaker stage. These effects were associated with changes in the expression of GA-responsive genes.

BBXs are B-Box zinc finger proteins that can act as transcription factors and regulators of protein complexes. Several BBX proteins play important roles in plant development. Two Arabidopsis thaliana microProteins belonging to the BBX family, named miP1a and miP1b, homotypically interact with and modulate the activity of other BBX proteins, including CONSTANS, which transcriptionally activates the florigen, FLOWERING LOCUS T. Arabidopsis plants overexpressing miP1a and miP1b showed delayed flowering. In tomato, the closest homologs of miP1a and miP1b are the microProteins SlBBX16 and SlBBX17. This study was aimed at investigating whether the constitutive expression of SlBBX16/17 in Arabidopsis and tomato impacted reproductive development. The heterologous expression of the two tomato microProteins in Arabidopsis caused a delay in the flowering transition; however, the effect was weaker than that observed when the native miP1a/b were overexpressed. In tomato, overexpression of SlBBX17 prolonged the flowering period; this effect was accompanied by downregulation of the flowering inhibitors Self Pruning (SP) and SP5G. SlBBX16 and SlBBX17 can hetero-oligomerize with TCMP-2, a cystine-knot peptide involved in flowering pattern regulation and early fruit development in tomato. The increased expression of both microProteins also caused alterations in tomato fruit development: we observed in the case of SlBBX17 a decrease in the number and size of ripe fruits as compared to WT plants, while for SlBBX16, a delay in fruit production up to the breaker stage. These effects were associated with changes in the expression of GA-responsive genes.

Fruit ripening is a complex developmental process in which fruit undergo physiological and biochemical changes, transforming fruit into nutritious and flavorful foods. Fruit quality traits, such as flavor and aroma, texture, and color, are essential for product marketability and increase during ripening. The characteristic changes in fruit physiology and biochemical composition during ripening result from extensive transcriptional reprogramming. While some regulatory mechanisms governing ripening have been identified, such as, transcription factors (TFs), plant hormones, and post-transcriptional and epigeneticfactors, the genetic factors regulating fruit quality are not fully understood.The overarching goal of this Ph.D. dissertation was to explain the physiological and genetic events determining fruit quality traits during ripening. First, I assessed the current knowledge of ripening regulators of fruit quality traits across diverse fruit species(Chapter 1). Five main categories emerged—color, flavor, nutrition, texture, and shelf life. Transcription factor regulators can act in a pathway-specific manner or as “master” regulators of multiple pathways. Pathway-specific regulators are promising targets for improving fruit quality because they cause fewer unwanted effects on other traits (Chapter 1). In contrast, manipulations to master regulators impact multiple quality attributes causing pleiotropic effects (Chapter 1, Chapter 2). Plant hormones act with transcription factors and are often non-specific to quality traits (Chapter 1).I employed multiple approaches to provide a system-wide understanding of ripening regulation and events associated with fruit quality in two economically important crops for California, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and pistachio (Pistacia vera). In both studies (Chapters 2 and 3), fruit physiological parameters were measured in field conditions to provide evidence of physical changes occurring in the fruit through ripening. Biochemical m

The fruit size of a cultivated olive tree is consistently larger than its corresponding wild relatives because fruit size is one of the main traits associated with olive tree domestication. Additionally, large fruit size is one of the main objectives of modern olive breeding programs. However, as the long juvenile period is one main hindrance in classic breeding approaches, obtaining genetic markers associated with this trait is a highly desirable tool. For this reason, GWAS analysis of both genetic markers and the genes associated with fruit size determination, measured as fruit weight, was herein carried out in 50 genotypes, of which 40 corresponded to cultivated and 10 to wild olive trees. As a result, 113 genetic markers were identified, which showed a very high statistically significant correlation with fruit weight variability, p < 10−10. These genetic markers corresponded to 39 clusters of genes in linkage disequilibrium. The analysis of a segregating progeny of the cross of “Frantoio” and “Picual” cultivars allowed us to confirm 10 of the 18 analyzed clusters. The annotation of the genes in each cluster and the expression pattern of the samples taken throughout fruit development by RNAseq enabled us to suggest that some studied genes are involved in olive fruit weight determination.

Due to global warming, the highlands of the tropics have become more important for planting fruit trees. The climate at high altitudes is mainly characterized by decreased temperatures and increased solar radiation. A systematic literature review using four bibliographic databases revealed 22 studies that determined fruit quality at two altitudes. With increasing altitude, duration of fruit development was prolonged, and, in most cases, higher fresh weights and sizes were found; however, fruit firmness decreased. The intensity of the fruit color increased because of greater radiation in high areas. Mostly, the total soluble solids of the fleshy fruits augmented with altitude, probably because of an increase in photosynthesis with higher solar radiation. The total acidity did not show a clear trend with increasing elevations. At higher altitudes, the content of antioxidants (mainly phenolics) increased in the fruits, especially in the epidermis as a reaction to the increasing ultraviolet (UV) light. Physiological disorders in the fruits included sunburn and damage caused by low temperatures. Different species and varieties react differently to the conditions of highlands, depending on their origin and whether climatic conditions are optimal for a specific fruit tree. There are no positive effects on fruit quality when altitude is at the limit or above the recommended range for the fruit species., Debido al calentamiento global, las zonas altas de los trópicos han ganado importancia para la siembra de los frutales. El clima en estas áreas se caracteriza principalmente por tener bajas temperaturas y mayor radiación solar. Mediante una revisión de literatura sistemática en cuatro bases de datos bibliográficas se encontraron 22 estudios que determinaron la calidad de los frutos evaluada en mínimo dos altitudes. A mayor altitud el desarrollo del fruto se prolongó y en la mayoría de los casos, se encontró un mayor peso fresco y tamaño, sin embargo, la firmeza del fruto disminuyó. La intensidad del color del fruto aumentó debido a la mayor radiación en zonas altas. En la mayoría de los casos, los sólidos solubles totales de frutos jugosos se incrementaron con la altitud, probablemente, por el aumento de la fotosíntesis debido a la mayor radiación solar, mientras que la acidez total no mostró una tendencia clara con el incremento de la elevación. Con la altitud ascendente aumentó el contenido de los antioxidantes (principalmente compuestos fenólicos) en los frutos y, especialmente, en su epidermis, como reacción al aumento de luz ultravioleta (UV). Dentro de los desórdenes fisiológicos en los frutos se destacan los golpes de sol y los daños por bajas temperaturas. Las especies y variedades reaccionan de forma diferente a las condiciones de las zonas altas, dependiendo de su origen, y si las condiciones climáticas están dentro de las óptimas para este frutal. No se detectan efectos positivos sobre la calidad del fruto cuando la altitud está en el límite o por encima del rango recomendado para la especie frutal.

This study reports the genetic diversity among Chilean heritage blood-flesh peaches and the characterization of phytochemicals and bioactive compounds present in these fruits. A genetic diversity analysis using 7,934 SNP markers was performed. The average observed heterozygosity (Ho=0.09) was very low in the 75 Chilean blood-flesh peach trees, whereas 14 commercial peach varieties had significantly higher levels of heterozygosity (Ho=0.32). Furthermore, the blood-flesh peach lines were genetically similar, and all of these lines were genetically different from the commercial varieties. A comparative analysis was carried out between the epicarp and mesocarp of the peach fruits. Fruit quality parameters were evaluated at harvest (weight, size, firmness and soluble solids), and concentrations of total polyphenols, anthocyanins, carotenoids, as were macro (P, K, Ca, Mg) and microelements (Fe, Zn, Mn, B, Cu). These analyses showed that blood-flesh peaches have high concentrations of anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G) and cyanidin-3-rutinoside (C3R)) when compared to commercial varieties with white or yellow mesocarps. A comparison was performed among Chinese, French and Chilean varieties, with similar values found for the antioxidant compounds. No significant differences in the microand macroelement contents were detected in these blood-flesh fruits compared to commercial varieties., Este estudio reporta por primera vez la diversidad genética entre duraznos betarraga de Chile, así como la caracterización de los compuestos fitoquímicos y bioactivos presentes en estos frutos. Se realizó un análisis de diversidad genética utilizando 7.934 marcadores SNP. La heterocigosidad promedio observada (Ho=0,09) fue muy baja en los 75 durazneros betarraga chilenos, mientras que 14 variedades comerciales de durazno tuvieron niveles significativamente más altos de heterocigosidad (Ho=0,32). Además, las líneas de durazno betarraga fueron genéticamente similares entre sí, y todas estas líneas fueron genéticamente diferentes de las variedades comerciales. Se realizó un análisis comparativo, entre epicarpio y mesocarpio de los frutos de durazno. Se evaluaron parámetros de calidad de frutos a la cosecha (peso, tamaño, firmeza y sólidos solubles) y concentraciones de polifenoles totales, antocianinas, carotenoides, así como macro (P, K, Ca, Mg) y microelementos (Fe, Zn, Mn, B ,Cu). Estos análisis mostraron que el durazno betarraga tiene altas concentraciones de antocianinas (cianidina-3-glucósido (C3G) y cianidina-3-rutinósido, C3R) en comparación con las variedades comerciales con mesocarpios blancos o amarillos. Se realizó una comparación entre las variedades Chinas, Francesas y Chilenas que muestran valores similares para los compuestos antioxidantes. No se detectaron diferencias significativas en el contenido de micro y macroelementos en estos frutos de pulpa roja en comparación con las variedades comerciales.

Drought sensitivity in olive trees varies throughout the season. The yield response to drought needs to consider the final use of the fruits and harvest date. In Mediterranean climates, the oil accumulation tends to occur in a period of low evaporative demand and during the rainy period. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of water stress during pit hardening on the yield components of oil olive trees. The experiment was conducted during three seasons (2017–2019) in a mature hedgerow olive orchard (11 years-old, Arbequina cv). The experiment design was a randomized completed block with 4 repetitions of 4 different irrigation treatments. Treatments were: Control, no water stress throughout the season; Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI)-1, moderate water stress during pit hardening and total recovery after the last week of August; RDI-2, same as RDI-1 but with severe water stress and partial recovery; and sustained deficit irrigation (SDI), constant applied water rate and the same seasonal water than RDI-2. The irrigation scheduling in RDIs were based on the frequencies of the trunk growth rate. No significant differences were found in fruit and oil yield between treatments. There were a significant relationship between water status measurements and fruit and oil yield. Part of the decrease in fruit yield with midday stem water potential (SWP) was related to fruit moisture, as no significant fruit drop was found. Only conditions of water stress in 2017, before the end of endocarp size, were related to a great reduction of fruit volume and, consequently, with fruit and oil yield. The relationship between the percentage of oil in dry weight and SWP was quadratic in different phases. Such relationships could help quantify the water stress level in these periods to maximize oil accumulation. © 2021 Elsevier B.V.

Drought sensitivity in olive trees varies throughout the season. The yield response to drought needs to consider the final use of the fruits and harvest date. In Mediterranean climates, the oil accumulation tends to occur in a period of low evaporative demand and during the rainy period. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of water stress during pit hardening on the yield components of oil olive trees. The experiment was conducted during three seasons (2017–2019) in a mature hedgerow olive orchard (11 years-old, Arbequina cv). The experiment design was a randomized completed block with 4 repetitions of 4 different irrigation treatments. Treatments were: Control, no water stress throughout the season; Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI)-1, moderate water stress during pit hardening and total recovery after the last week of August; RDI-2, same as RDI-1 but with severe water stress and partial recovery; and sustained deficit irrigation (SDI), constant applied water rate and the same seasonal water than RDI-2. The irrigation scheduling in RDIs were based on the frequencies of the trunk growth rate. No significant differences were found in fruit and oil yield between treatments. There were a significant relationship between water status measurements and fruit and oil yield. Part of the decrease in fruit yield with midday stem water potential (SWP) was related to fruit moisture, as no significant fruit drop was found. Only conditions of water stress in 2017, before the end of endocarp size, were related to a great reduction of fruit volume and, consequently, with fruit and oil yield. The relationship between the percentage of oil in dry weight and SWP was quadratic in different phases. Such relationships could help quantify the water stress level in these periods to maximize oil accumulation.

This paper presents a receding horizon optimal control (RHOC) method with an economic objective function for balancing the cost of resources (resource use x cost) with income through yield (yield x product price). This paper considers the two elements that determine the income through yield. The first element is yield and associated fruit development. A new, computationally viable, approach to model the income through yield is proposed and its prediction accuracy with respect to the original model is evaluated. The new approach employs a model that predicts at each time step, the future income through yield based on the assimilates partitioned to the fruits at the current time step. Simulations suggest that the assumptions made to arrive at the model for the new approach, do not significantly affect the accuracy of the predictions. The second element considered in this paper is the product price and the uncertainty inherent in its forecasts. Historical product price data are used to generate artificial product price forecasts. An uncertainty analysis, in combination with the artificial product price forecasts, showed that the product price forecast error does not considerably affect the optimised control strategy. Season-wide simulations with RHOC suggest that the product price forecast error does not considerably affect the value of the economic objective function.

Drought sensitivity in olive trees varies throughout the season. The yield response to drought needs to consider the final use of the fruits and harvest date. In Mediterranean climates, the oil accumulation tends to occur in a period of low evaporative demand and during the rainy period. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of water stress during pit hardening on the yield components of oil olive trees. The experiment was conducted during three seasons (2017–2019) in a mature hedgerow olive orchard (11 years-old, Arbequina cv). The experiment design was a randomized completed block with 4 repetitions of 4 different irrigation treatments. Treatments were: Control, no water stress throughout the season; Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI)-1, moderate water stress during pit hardening and total recovery after the last week of August; RDI-2, same as RDI-1 but with severe water stress and partial recovery; and sustained deficit irrigation (SDI), constant applied water rate and the same seasonal water than RDI-2. The irrigation scheduling in RDIs were based on the frequencies of the trunk growth rate. No significant differences were found in fruit and oil yield between treatments. There were a significant relationship between water status measurements and fruit and oil yield. Part of the decrease in fruit yield with midday stem water potential (SWP) was related to fruit moisture, as no significant fruit drop was found. Only conditions of water stress in 2017, before the end of endocarp size, were related to a great reduction of fruit volume and, consequently, with fruit and oil yield. The relationship between the percentage of oil in dry weight and SWP was quadratic in different phases. Such relationships could help quantify the water stress level in these periods to maximize oil accumulation.

This paper presents a receding horizon optimal control (RHOC) method with an economic objective function for balancing the cost of resources (resource use x cost) with income through yield (yield x product price). This paper considers the two elements that determine the income through yield. The first element is yield and associated fruit development. A new, computationally viable, approach to model the income through yield is proposed and its prediction accuracy with respect to the original model is evaluated. The new approach employs a model that predicts at each time step, the future income through yield based on the assimilates partitioned to the fruits at the current time step. Simulations suggest that the assumptions made to arrive at the model for the new approach, do not significantly affect the accuracy of the predictions. The second element considered in this paper is the product price and the uncertainty inherent in its forecasts. Historical product price data are used to generate artificial product price forecasts. An uncertainty analysis, in combination with the artificial product price forecasts, showed that the product price forecast error does not considerably affect the optimised control strategy. Season-wide simulations with RHOC suggest that the product price forecast error does not considerably affect the value of the economic objective function.

This paper presents a receding horizon optimal control (RHOC) method with an economic objective function for balancing the cost of resources () with income through yield (). This paper considers the two elements that determine the income through yield. The first element is yield and associated fruit development. A new, computationally viable, approach to model the income through yield is proposed and its prediction accuracy with respect to the original model is evaluated. The new approach employs a model that predicts at each time step, the future income through yield based on the assimilates partitioned to the fruits at the current time step. Simulations suggest that the assumptions made to arrive at the model for the new approach, do not significantly affect the accuracy of the predictions. The second element considered in this paper is the product price and the uncertainty inherent in its forecasts. Historical product price data are used to generate artificial product price forecasts. An uncertainty analysis, in combination with the artificial product price forecasts, showed that the product price forecast error does not considerably affect the optimised control strategy. Season-wide simulations with RHOC suggest that the product price forecast error does not considerably affect the value of the economic objective function.

Fruit development studies were taken up in white and pink types of wax apple trees aging twelve years old at Goa, India. The study was initiated with the onset of flowering in November during the year 2018. After tagging the flowers on anthesis, samples were drawn periodically to record parameters like fruit weight, fruit volume, fruit length and diameter (upper, middle and lower), quality or biochemical parameters like total acids and sugars. Relative growth rate (RGR) was calculated for all parameters and graphs were generated. In both the types, fruit weight, fruit volume, fruit length and diameter increased in a sigmoidal pattern. The quality characters like TSS, total acids and total sugars also showed a sigmoidal pattern of increase whereas the increase in reducing sugars exhibited a double sigmoidal pattern of increase. It was evident from the curves that there was pronounced peak in growth rate between 21 and 28 days after anthesis for fruit weight, fruit volume, fruit length and diameter, in both pink and white types of wax apple.

Fruit development studies were taken up in white and pink types of wax apple trees aging twelve years old at Goa, India. The study was initiated with the onset of flowering in November during the year 2018. After tagging the flowers on anthesis, samples were drawn periodically to record parameters like fruit weight, fruit volume, fruit length and diameter (upper, middle and lower), quality or biochemical parameters like total acids and sugars. Relative growth rate (RGR) was calculated for all parameters and graphs were generated. In both the types, fruit weight, fruit volume, fruit length and diameter increased in a sigmoidal pattern. The quality characters like TSS, total acids and total sugars also showed a sigmoidal pattern of increase whereas the increase in reducing sugars exhibited a double sigmoidal pattern of increase. It was evident from the curves that there was pronounced peak in growth rate between 21 and 28 days after anthesis for fruit weight, fruit volume, fruit length and diameter, in both pink and white types of wax apple.

In stone fruits, the pit hardening period is usually one of slow fruit growth that is considered relatively insensitive to an imposed moderate water stress. For this reason, this period is commonly employed for a first phase of reduced water input in regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategies. However, in previous studies with the Japanese plum cv. 'Angeleno', the identification of a period of slow growth just before harvest suggested the need to reconsider the most suitable RDI strategy for this cultivar. In this 3-year study (2014, 2015 and 2016) three irrigation strategies were compared: Control (CON) designed to meet tree water requirements throughout the season; Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI) with two separate periods of water deficit, one preharvest with no irrigation inputs during an intermediate period of fruit growth (pit hardening period), and the other postharvest with a 30 % reduction of the CON inputs; and Preharvest + Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDP) with a single period of deficit irrigation initiated before harvesting and extended until the end of the irrigation campaign. Both deficit irrigation treatments were found to be effective at controlling tree vigor, with lower trunk cross-sectional area growth and pruned wood weight than in the CON treatment. Average water savings with the RDI and RDP strategies over the three years of the study were 24 % and 18 %, respectively, compared to CON, with no impact on yield and no carry-over effect. Fruit size in the RDP treatment was similar to the CON. The differences in fruit firmness, soluble solids concentration (SSC), acidity, lightness (L), hue (ho) and chroma (C*) of the skin were only slight or inconsistent over the three years. Our results confirm the suitability of moderate pre- and postharvest water stress (RDP strategy) in this cultivar, with greater water productivity than the traditional RDI strategy.

[EN] The genetic mechanisms underlying fruit development have been identified in Arabidopsis and have been comparatively studied in tomato as a representative of fleshy fruits. However, comparative expression and functional analyses on the bHLH genes downstream the genetic network, ALCATRAZ (ALC) and SPATULA (SPT), which are involved in the formation of the dehiscence zone in Arabidopsis, have not been functionally studied in the Solanaceae. Here, we perform detailed expression and functional studies of ALC/SPT homologs in Nicotiana obtusifolia with capsules, and in Capsicum annuum and Solanum lycopersicum with berries. In Solanaceae, ALC and SPT genes are expressed in leaves, and all floral organs, especially in petal margins, stamens and carpels; however, their expression changes during fruit maturation according to the fruit type. Functional analyses show that downregulation of ALC/SPT genes does not have an effect on gynoecium patterning; however, they have acquired opposite roles in petal expansion and have been co-opted in leaf pigmentation in Solanaceae. In addition, ALC/SPT genes repress lignification in time and space during fruit development in Solanaceae. Altogether, some roles of ALC and SPT genes are different between Brassicaceae and Solanaceae; while the paralogs have undergone some subfunctionalization in the former they are mostly redundant in the latter.

Ecologically and economically important fleshy edible fruits have evolved from dry fruit numerous times during angiosperm diversification. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie these shifts are unknown. In the Solanaceae there has been a major shift to fleshy fruits in the subfamily Solanoideae. Evidence suggests that an ortholog of FRUITFULL (FUL), a transcription factor that regulates cell proliferation and limits the dehiscence zone in the silique of Arabidopsis, plays a similar role in dry-fruited Solanaceae. However, studies have shown that FUL orthologs have taken on new functions in fleshy fruit development, including regulating elements of tomato ripening such as pigment accumulation. FUL belongs to the core eudicot euFUL clade of the angiosperm AP1/FUL gene lineage. The euFUL genes fall into two paralogous clades, euFULI and euFULII. While most core eudicots have one gene in each clade, Solanaceae have two: FUL1 and FUL2 in the former, and MBP10 and MBP20 in the latter. We characterized the evolution of the euFUL genes to identify changes that might be correlated with the origin of fleshy fruit in Solanaceae. Our analyses revealed that the Solanaceae FUL1 and FUL2 clades probably originated through an early whole genome multiplication event. By contrast, the data suggest that the MBP10 and MBP20 clades are the result of a later tandem duplication event. MBP10 is expressed at weak to moderate levels, and its atypical short first intron lacks putative transcription factor binding sites, indicating possible pseudogenization. Consistent with this, our analyses show that MBP10 is evolving at a faster rate compared to MBP20. Our analyses found that Solanaceae euFUL gene duplications, evolutionary rates, and changes in protein residues and expression patterns are not correlated with the shift in fruit type. This suggests deeper analyses are needed to identify the mechanism underlying the change in FUL ortholog function.

[EN] The genetic mechanisms underlying fruit development have been identified in Arabidopsis and have been comparatively studied in tomato as a representative of fleshy fruits. However, comparative expression and functional analyses on the bHLH genes downstream the genetic network, ALCATRAZ (ALC) and SPATULA (SPT), which are involved in the formation of the dehiscence zone in Arabidopsis, have not been functionally studied in the Solanaceae. Here, we perform detailed expression and functional studies of ALC/SPT homologs in Nicotiana obtusifolia with capsules, and in Capsicum annuum and Solanum lycopersicum with berries. In Solanaceae, ALC and SPT genes are expressed in leaves, and all floral organs, especially in petal margins, stamens and carpels; however, their expression changes during fruit maturation according to the fruit type. Functional analyses show that downregulation of ALC/SPT genes does not have an effect on gynoecium patterning; however, they have acquired opposite roles in petal expansion and have been co-opted in leaf pigmentation in Solanaceae. In addition, ALC/SPT genes repress lignification in time and space during fruit development in Solanaceae. Altogether, some roles of ALC and SPT genes are different between Brassicaceae and Solanaceae; while the paralogs have undergone some subfunctionalization in the former they are mostly redundant in the latter.

[EN] The genetic mechanisms underlying fruit development have been identified in Arabidopsis and have been comparatively studied in tomato as a representative of fleshy fruits. However, comparative expression and functional analyses on the bHLH genes downstream the genetic network, ALCATRAZ (ALC) and SPATULA (SPT), which are involved in the formation of the dehiscence zone in Arabidopsis, have not been functionally studied in the Solanaceae. Here, we perform detailed expression and functional studies of ALC/SPT homologs in Nicotiana obtusifolia with capsules, and in Capsicum annuum and Solanum lycopersicum with berries. In Solanaceae, ALC and SPT genes are expressed in leaves, and all floral organs, especially in petal margins, stamens and carpels; however, their expression changes during fruit maturation according to the fruit type. Functional analyses show that downregulation of ALC/SPT genes does not have an effect on gynoecium patterning; however, they have acquired opposite roles in petal expansion and have been co-opted in leaf pigmentation in Solanaceae. In addition, ALC/SPT genes repress lignification in time and space during fruit development in Solanaceae. Altogether, some roles of ALC and SPT genes are different between Brassicaceae and Solanaceae; while the paralogs have undergone some subfunctionalization in the former they are mostly redundant in the latter.

The aim of our research was to connect the detailed study of fruit anatomy of black crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) with identification and detection of the main non-anthocyanin polyphenolic compounds. Our experimental results showed that the highest accumulation of anthocyanin bodies occurred in mature fruits in outer layers during fruit development. The shape of the anthocyanin bodies was most often globular, spherical, hemispherical and intermediate types were present only occasionally. Mature cells of the gynoecium and pericarp generally contain anthocyanin bodies incorporated inside vacuoles. The observed compounds accumulated in cells were rutin, quercetin and catechins, resveratrol, coumaric, p-coumaric, caffeic, ferulic acids, gale, vanilic, syringe, cinnamic and caffeic acids. These compounds were selected because of their proposed positive effects on health. The analyses of the polyphenolic spectrum showed predominance of ferrulic acid together with gallic acid and catechins with quercetin.

Ecologically and economically important fleshy edible fruits have evolved from dry fruit numerous times during angiosperm diversification. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie these shifts are unknown. In the Solanaceae there has been a major shift to fleshy fruits in the subfamily Solanoideae. Evidence suggests that an ortholog of FRUITFULL (FUL), a transcription factor that regulates cell proliferation and limits the dehiscence zone in the silique of Arabidopsis, plays a similar role in dry-fruited Solanaceae. However, studies have shown that FUL orthologs have taken on new functions in fleshy fruit development, including regulating elements of tomato ripening such as pigment accumulation. FUL belongs to the core eudicot euFUL clade of the angiosperm AP1/FUL gene lineage. The euFUL genes fall into two paralogous clades, euFULI and euFULII. While most core eudicots have one gene in each clade, Solanaceae have two: FUL1 and FUL2 in the former, and MBP10 and MBP20 in the latter. We characterized the evolution of the euFUL genes to identify changes that might be correlated with the origin of fleshy fruit in Solanaceae. Our analyses revealed that the Solanaceae FUL1 and FUL2 clades probably originated through an early whole genome multiplication event. By contrast, the data suggest that the MBP10 and MBP20 clades are the result of a later tandem duplication event. MBP10 is expressed at weak to moderate levels, and its atypical short first intron lacks putative transcription factor binding sites, indicating possible pseudogenization. Consistent with this, our analyses show that MBP10 is evolving at a faster rate compared to MBP20. Our analyses found that Solanaceae euFUL gene duplications, evolutionary rates, and changes in protein residues and expression patterns are not correlated with the shift in fruit type. This suggests deeper analyses are needed to identify the mechanism underlying the change in FUL ortholog function.

[ES] El desarrollo del ovario en un fruto (cuajado del fruto) depende de que ocurra la polinización y fertilización del mismo y puede verse comprometido por condiciones ambientales desfavorables. Sin embargo, en algunas especies el cuajado del fruto puede desacoplarse de la fertilización generando así frutos sin semillas (partenocárpicos). La partenocarpia es un carácter apreciado en la industria y a la vez, una herramienta valiosa para dilucidar las bases genéticas y moleculares que controlan el proceso de cuajado del fruto. En este estudio se obtienen y caracterizan plantas transgénicas estériles masculinas que producen frutos partenocárpicos en el cultivar de tomate Moneymaker. La esterilidad masculina es generada mediante la tecnología de edición génica CRISPR/Cas9. La proteína programable Cas9 tiene como diana uno de los genes que intervienen en los estadios iniciales del desarrollo del polen. El impedimento del desarrollo temprano del polen se puede considerar como una herramienta útil para promover el cuajado del fruto y obtener frutos sin semillas. Las plantas editadas obtenidas podrían ser útiles como líneas parentales en programas de obtención de híbridos., [EN] The development of the ovary into a fruit (fruit set) depends on pollination and fertilization, which may be compromised by extreme environmental conditions. However, in some species, the onset of the fruit can be uncoupled from fertilization, generating seedless fruits (parthenocarpic fruits). Therefore, parthenocarpy is a valuable tool to elucidate the genetic and molecular bases that control fruit set process. In this study we report the production and characterization of male-sterile transgenic plants that produce parthenocarpic fruits in the Moneymaker tomato cultivar. We generated male-sterility using the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology. The programmable protein Cas9 targets one of the genes involved in the early steps of pollen development. The prevention of pollen development at early stages can be considered as a useful tool to promote fruit set and to obtain seedless fruits. The edited plants could be also useful to be used as parental lines in hybrid breeding approaches.

[ES] La utilización de ácido giberélico al inicio del cambio de color retrasa la maduración del fruto del caqui y consigue posponer su recolección, lo que se utiliza como estrategia comercial para ordenar la comercialización del mismo. Aunque la concentración saturante de esta materia se estableció en 30 mg·l -1 , en la práctica se utilizan 50 mg·l -1 , y, además se repite la aplicación hasta 4 ó 5 veces con el fin de conseguir el máximo retraso posible en la recolección del fruto. Pero, el tratamiento, por una parte, y, el retraso de la cosecha por otra, retardan la caída de hojas, y la entrada en latencia de las yemas, las cuales en primavera brotan sin completar su maduración, y desarrollan, por tanto, frutos que no alcanzan el tamaño adecuado. El efecto de los tratamientos sobre la latencia se desconoce, y ello, se aborda en este Trabajo Final de Grado, con el fin de conocer la razón del desarrollo deficiente de las flores y frutos. Para ello, se estudia el efecto comparado de ambas concentraciones de AG, y su acción sobre el avance hormonal de las yemas y el consumo de reservas de carbohidratos almacenados en la corteza de las ramas próxima a las yemas. Por otra parte, y dado que la aplicación de auxinas de síntesis al inicio de la fase lineal de crecimiento aumentan el tamaño final del fruto en el caqui, la utilización del ácido 3,5,6 – tricloro – 2 – piridiloxiacético (3,5,6 – TPA) y la realización del rayado se presentan como técnicas que podrían ser de utilidad para restituir la pérdida del tamaño del fruto, derivada de las aplicaciones de ácido giberélico en otoño y del retraso en la recolección, aspecto que también se aborda en este trabajo. Nuestros resultados concluyen que i) la aplicación de 30 mg·l -1 retrasa con la misma intensidad que 50 mg·l -1 la coloración del caqui ‘Rojo Brillante’, pero con un menor grado de afección de la latencia y, por tanto, de la brotación y desarrollo inicial del fruto, y ii) la aplicación de 15 mg·l -1 de la auxina de sí, [EN] Gibberellic acid (AG) applied at the beginning of fruit colour change significantly delays fruit ripening and harvest date of persimmon, thus increasing growers returns. However, although GA shows a saturating effect for 30 mg·l -1 , growers apply 50 mg·l -1 and repeat the application by three in order to delay harvesting as long as possible. However, leaf also delays the senescence process and abscission, and, hence, the onset of dormancy is significantly delayed. Consequently, buds do not accumulate chilling enough for an appropriated sprout and flower development, and, finally, fruit size is dramatically reduced. The effect of this kind of treatments on dormancy remains unknown, and it is addressed in this Final Degree Project in order to know the reason for the deficient development of flowers and fruits. The comparative effect of both concentrations of GA, and their effect on the time-course of the hormonal content and carbohydrate consumption along the bud dormancy was studied with this purpose. Besides, since the application of some synthetic auxins has been proved to increase final fruit size when applied at the onset of fruit growth, 3,5,6 - trichloro - 2 – pyridyloxyacetic acid (3,5,6 - TPA) was used to improve fruit development to overcome the depressive effect of AG when applied to delay fruit ripening. Our results conclude that i) the application of 30 mg·l -1 delays fruit ripening of ‘Rojo Brillante’ persimmon with the same intensity as 50 mg·l -1 , and with a lower negative effect on bud dormancy, allowing a better sprouting and fruit development, and ii) the application of 15 mg·l -1 of 3,5,6-TPA significantly increased final fruit size up to similar values to those of the untreated and not delayed harvesting tress., [CA] La utilització d'àcid giberèlic a l'inici del canvi de color retarda la maduració del fruit del caqui i aconsegueix posposar la seua recol·lecció, la qual cosa s'utilitza com a estratègia comercial per a ordenar la comercialització del mateix. Encara que la concentració saturant d'esta matèria es va establir en 30 mg·l -1 , en la pràctica s'utilitzen 50 mg·l -1 , i, a més es repeteix l'aplicació fins a 4 o 5 vegades a fi d'aconseguir el màxim retard possible en la recol·lecció del fruit. Però, el tractament, d'una banda, i, el retard de la collita d'una altra, retarden la caiguda de fulls, i l'entrada en latència de les gemmes, les quals a la primavera brollen sense completar la seua maduració, i desenvolupen, per tant, fruits que no aconsegueixen la grandària adequada. L'efecte dels tractaments sobre la latència es desconeix, i això, s'aborda en aquest Treball Final de Grau, a fi de conèixer la raó del desenvolupament deficient de les flors i fruits. Per a això, s'estudia l'efecte comparat d'ambdues concentracions d'AG, i la seua acció sobre l'avanç hormonal de les gemmes i el consum de reserves de carbohidrats emmagatzemats en la corfa de les branques pròxima a les gemmes. D'altra banda, i atès que l'aplicació d'auxines de síntesis a l'inici de la fase lineal de creixement augmenten la grandària final del fruit en el caqui, la utilització de l'àcid 3,5,6 – tricloro – 2 – piridiloxiacétic (3,5,6 – TPA) i la realització del ratllat es presenten com a tècniques que podrien ser d'utilitat per a restituir la pèrdua de la grandària del fruit, derivada de les aplicacions d'àcid giberélic a la tardor i del retard en la recol·lecció, aspecte que també s'aborda en aquest treball. Els nostres resultats conclouen que i) l'aplicació de 30 mg·l-1 retarda amb la mateixa intensitat que 50 mg·l-1 la coloració del caqui ‘Roig Brillant’, però amb un menor grau d'afecció de la latència i, per tant, de la brotació i desenvolupament inicial del fruit, i ii) l'aplicació de 15 mg·l

[ES] La utilización de ácido giberélico al inicio del cambio de color retrasa la maduración del fruto del caqui y consigue posponer su recolección, lo que se utiliza como estrategia comercial para ordenar la comercialización del mismo. Aunque la concentración saturante de esta materia se estableció en 30 mg·l -1 , en la práctica se utilizan 50 mg·l -1 , y, además se repite la aplicación hasta 4 ó 5 veces con el fin de conseguir el máximo retraso posible en la recolección del fruto. Pero, el tratamiento, por una parte, y, el retraso de la cosecha por otra, retardan la caída de hojas, y la entrada en latencia de las yemas, las cuales en primavera brotan sin completar su maduración, y desarrollan, por tanto, frutos que no alcanzan el tamaño adecuado. El efecto de los tratamientos sobre la latencia se desconoce, y ello, se aborda en este Trabajo Final de Grado, con el fin de conocer la razón del desarrollo deficiente de las flores y frutos. Para ello, se estudia el efecto comparado de ambas concentraciones de AG, y su acción sobre el avance hormonal de las yemas y el consumo de reservas de carbohidratos almacenados en la corteza de las ramas próxima a las yemas. Por otra parte, y dado que la aplicación de auxinas de síntesis al inicio de la fase lineal de crecimiento aumentan el tamaño final del fruto en el caqui, la utilización del ácido 3,5,6 – tricloro – 2 – piridiloxiacético (3,5,6 – TPA) y la realización del rayado se presentan como técnicas que podrían ser de utilidad para restituir la pérdida del tamaño del fruto, derivada de las aplicaciones de ácido giberélico en otoño y del retraso en la recolección, aspecto que también se aborda en este trabajo. Nuestros resultados concluyen que i) la aplicación de 30 mg·l -1 retrasa con la misma intensidad que 50 mg·l -1 la coloración del caqui ‘Rojo Brillante’, pero con un menor grado de afección de la latencia y, por tanto, de la brotación y desarrollo inicial del fruto, y ii) la aplicación de 15 mg·l -1 de la auxina de sí, [EN] Gibberellic acid (AG) applied at the beginning of fruit colour change significantly delays fruit ripening and harvest date of persimmon, thus increasing growers returns. However, although GA shows a saturating effect for 30 mg·l -1 , growers apply 50 mg·l -1 and repeat the application by three in order to delay harvesting as long as possible. However, leaf also delays the senescence process and abscission, and, hence, the onset of dormancy is significantly delayed. Consequently, buds do not accumulate chilling enough for an appropriated sprout and flower development, and, finally, fruit size is dramatically reduced. The effect of this kind of treatments on dormancy remains unknown, and it is addressed in this Final Degree Project in order to know the reason for the deficient development of flowers and fruits. The comparative effect of both concentrations of GA, and their effect on the time-course of the hormonal content and carbohydrate consumption along the bud dormancy was studied with this purpose. Besides, since the application of some synthetic auxins has been proved to increase final fruit size when applied at the onset of fruit growth, 3,5,6 - trichloro - 2 – pyridyloxyacetic acid (3,5,6 - TPA) was used to improve fruit development to overcome the depressive effect of AG when applied to delay fruit ripening. Our results conclude that i) the application of 30 mg·l -1 delays fruit ripening of ‘Rojo Brillante’ persimmon with the same intensity as 50 mg·l -1 , and with a lower negative effect on bud dormancy, allowing a better sprouting and fruit development, and ii) the application of 15 mg·l -1 of 3,5,6-TPA significantly increased final fruit size up to similar values to those of the untreated and not delayed harvesting tress., [CA] La utilització d'àcid giberèlic a l'inici del canvi de color retarda la maduració del fruit del caqui i aconsegueix posposar la seua recol·lecció, la qual cosa s'utilitza com a estratègia comercial per a ordenar la comercialització del mateix. Encara que la concentració saturant d'esta matèria es va establir en 30 mg·l -1 , en la pràctica s'utilitzen 50 mg·l -1 , i, a més es repeteix l'aplicació fins a 4 o 5 vegades a fi d'aconseguir el màxim retard possible en la recol·lecció del fruit. Però, el tractament, d'una banda, i, el retard de la collita d'una altra, retarden la caiguda de fulls, i l'entrada en latència de les gemmes, les quals a la primavera brollen sense completar la seua maduració, i desenvolupen, per tant, fruits que no aconsegueixen la grandària adequada. L'efecte dels tractaments sobre la latència es desconeix, i això, s'aborda en aquest Treball Final de Grau, a fi de conèixer la raó del desenvolupament deficient de les flors i fruits. Per a això, s'estudia l'efecte comparat d'ambdues concentracions d'AG, i la seua acció sobre l'avanç hormonal de les gemmes i el consum de reserves de carbohidrats emmagatzemats en la corfa de les branques pròxima a les gemmes. D'altra banda, i atès que l'aplicació d'auxines de síntesis a l'inici de la fase lineal de creixement augmenten la grandària final del fruit en el caqui, la utilització de l'àcid 3,5,6 – tricloro – 2 – piridiloxiacétic (3,5,6 – TPA) i la realització del ratllat es presenten com a tècniques que podrien ser d'utilitat per a restituir la pèrdua de la grandària del fruit, derivada de les aplicacions d'àcid giberélic a la tardor i del retard en la recol·lecció, aspecte que també s'aborda en aquest treball. Els nostres resultats conclouen que i) l'aplicació de 30 mg·l-1 retarda amb la mateixa intensitat que 50 mg·l-1 la coloració del caqui ‘Roig Brillant’, però amb un menor grau d'afecció de la latència i, per tant, de la brotació i desenvolupament inicial del fruit, i ii) l'aplicació de 15 mg·l

[ES] La utilización de ácido giberélico al inicio del cambio de color retrasa la maduración del fruto del caqui y consigue posponer su recolección, lo que se utiliza como estrategia comercial para ordenar la comercialización del mismo. Aunque la concentración saturante de esta materia se estableció en 30 mg·l -1 , en la práctica se utilizan 50 mg·l -1 , y, además se repite la aplicación hasta 4 ó 5 veces con el fin de conseguir el máximo retraso posible en la recolección del fruto. Pero, el tratamiento, por una parte, y, el retraso de la cosecha por otra, retardan la caída de hojas, y la entrada en latencia de las yemas, las cuales en primavera brotan sin completar su maduración, y desarrollan, por tanto, frutos que no alcanzan el tamaño adecuado. El efecto de los tratamientos sobre la latencia se desconoce, y ello, se aborda en este Trabajo Final de Grado, con el fin de conocer la razón del desarrollo deficiente de las flores y frutos. Para ello, se estudia el efecto comparado de ambas concentraciones de AG, y su acción sobre el avance hormonal de las yemas y el consumo de reservas de carbohidratos almacenados en la corteza de las ramas próxima a las yemas. Por otra parte, y dado que la aplicación de auxinas de síntesis al inicio de la fase lineal de crecimiento aumentan el tamaño final del fruto en el caqui, la utilización del ácido 3,5,6 – tricloro – 2 – piridiloxiacético (3,5,6 – TPA) y la realización del rayado se presentan como técnicas que podrían ser de utilidad para restituir la pérdida del tamaño del fruto, derivada de las aplicaciones de ácido giberélico en otoño y del retraso en la recolección, aspecto que también se aborda en este trabajo. Nuestros resultados concluyen que i) la aplicación de 30 mg·l -1 retrasa con la misma intensidad que 50 mg·l -1 la coloración del caqui ‘Rojo Brillante’, pero con un menor grado de afección de la latencia y, por tanto, de la brotación y desarrollo inicial del fruto, y ii) la aplicación de 15 mg·l -1 de la auxina de sí, [EN] Gibberellic acid (AG) applied at the beginning of fruit colour change significantly delays fruit ripening and harvest date of persimmon, thus increasing growers returns. However, although GA shows a saturating effect for 30 mg·l -1 , growers apply 50 mg·l -1 and repeat the application by three in order to delay harvesting as long as possible. However, leaf also delays the senescence process and abscission, and, hence, the onset of dormancy is significantly delayed. Consequently, buds do not accumulate chilling enough for an appropriated sprout and flower development, and, finally, fruit size is dramatically reduced. The effect of this kind of treatments on dormancy remains unknown, and it is addressed in this Final Degree Project in order to know the reason for the deficient development of flowers and fruits. The comparative effect of both concentrations of GA, and their effect on the time-course of the hormonal content and carbohydrate consumption along the bud dormancy was studied with this purpose. Besides, since the application of some synthetic auxins has been proved to increase final fruit size when applied at the onset of fruit growth, 3,5,6 - trichloro - 2 – pyridyloxyacetic acid (3,5,6 - TPA) was used to improve fruit development to overcome the depressive effect of AG when applied to delay fruit ripening. Our results conclude that i) the application of 30 mg·l -1 delays fruit ripening of ‘Rojo Brillante’ persimmon with the same intensity as 50 mg·l -1 , and with a lower negative effect on bud dormancy, allowing a better sprouting and fruit development, and ii) the application of 15 mg·l -1 of 3,5,6-TPA significantly increased final fruit size up to similar values to those of the untreated and not delayed harvesting tress., [CA] La utilització d'àcid giberèlic a l'inici del canvi de color retarda la maduració del fruit del caqui i aconsegueix posposar la seua recol·lecció, la qual cosa s'utilitza com a estratègia comercial per a ordenar la comercialització del mateix. Encara que la concentració saturant d'esta matèria es va establir en 30 mg·l -1 , en la pràctica s'utilitzen 50 mg·l -1 , i, a més es repeteix l'aplicació fins a 4 o 5 vegades a fi d'aconseguir el màxim retard possible en la recol·lecció del fruit. Però, el tractament, d'una banda, i, el retard de la collita d'una altra, retarden la caiguda de fulls, i l'entrada en latència de les gemmes, les quals a la primavera brollen sense completar la seua maduració, i desenvolupen, per tant, fruits que no aconsegueixen la grandària adequada. L'efecte dels tractaments sobre la latència es desconeix, i això, s'aborda en aquest Treball Final de Grau, a fi de conèixer la raó del desenvolupament deficient de les flors i fruits. Per a això, s'estudia l'efecte comparat d'ambdues concentracions d'AG, i la seua acció sobre l'avanç hormonal de les gemmes i el consum de reserves de carbohidrats emmagatzemats en la corfa de les branques pròxima a les gemmes. D'altra banda, i atès que l'aplicació d'auxines de síntesis a l'inici de la fase lineal de creixement augmenten la grandària final del fruit en el caqui, la utilització de l'àcid 3,5,6 – tricloro – 2 – piridiloxiacétic (3,5,6 – TPA) i la realització del ratllat es presenten com a tècniques que podrien ser d'utilitat per a restituir la pèrdua de la grandària del fruit, derivada de les aplicacions d'àcid giberélic a la tardor i del retard en la recol·lecció, aspecte que també s'aborda en aquest treball. Els nostres resultats conclouen que i) l'aplicació de 30 mg·l-1 retarda amb la mateixa intensitat que 50 mg·l-1 la coloració del caqui ‘Roig Brillant’, però amb un menor grau d'afecció de la latència i, per tant, de la brotació i desenvolupament inicial del fruit, i ii) l'aplicació de 15 mg·l

The aim of our research was to connect the detailed study of fruit anatomy of black crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) with identification and detection of the main non-anthocyanin polyphenolic compounds. Our experimental results showed that the highest accumulation of anthocyanin bodies occurred in mature fruits in outer layers during fruit development. The shape of the anthocyanin bodies was most often globular, spherical, hemispherical and intermediate types were present only occasionally. Mature cells of the gynoecium and pericarp generally contain anthocyanin bodies incorporated inside vacuoles. The observed compounds accumulated in cells were rutin, quercetin and catechins, resveratrol, coumaric, p-coumaric, caffeic, ferulic acids, gale, vanilic, syringe, cinnamic and caffeic acids. These compounds were selected because of their proposed positive effects on health. The analyses of the polyphenolic spectrum showed predominance of ferrulic acid together with gallic acid and catechins with quercetin.

Quantification, using an accurate analytical approach, of capsinoids and capsaicinoids was performed on three chili pepper (Capsicum spp.) genotypes: “Chiltepı́n”, “Tampiqueño 74”, and “Bhut Jolokia” at various stages of fruit development. The accumulation of capsinoids, in all these peppers started between 10 to 20 days post-anthesis (dpa), increased and reached the highest capsinoid amount at 40 dpa, and then decreased until 60 dpa. Conversely, capsaicinoids could already be determined at 10 dpa in “Bhut Jolokia” and their accumulation pattern was different from that of the capsinoids in this genotype. The capsiate/dihydrocapsiate ratio presented a higher variation between genotypes and developmental stages than the capsaicin/dihydrocapsaicin ratio. Capsinoid ratios (4–24%) and Pun1/pAMT genotyping were determined. These results provide information on the progress of the accumulation of capsinoids in the aforementioned pungent and superhot cultivars and could support future breeding studies toward the understanding of the factors affecting their accumulation.

[ES] El desarrollo del ovario en un fruto (cuajado del fruto) depende de que ocurra la polinización y fertilización del mismo y puede verse comprometido por condiciones ambientales desfavorables. Sin embargo, en algunas especies el cuajado del fruto puede desacoplarse de la fertilización generando así frutos sin semillas (partenocárpicos). La partenocarpia es un carácter apreciado en la industria y a la vez, una herramienta valiosa para dilucidar las bases genéticas y moleculares que controlan el proceso de cuajado del fruto. En este estudio se obtienen y caracterizan plantas transgénicas estériles masculinas que producen frutos partenocárpicos en el cultivar de tomate Moneymaker. La esterilidad masculina es generada mediante la tecnología de edición génica CRISPR/Cas9. La proteína programable Cas9 tiene como diana uno de los genes que intervienen en los estadios iniciales del desarrollo del polen. El impedimento del desarrollo temprano del polen se puede considerar como una herramienta útil para promover el cuajado del fruto y obtener frutos sin semillas. Las plantas editadas obtenidas podrían ser útiles como líneas parentales en programas de obtención de híbridos., [EN] The development of the ovary into a fruit (fruit set) depends on pollination and fertilization, which may be compromised by extreme environmental conditions. However, in some species, the onset of the fruit can be uncoupled from fertilization, generating seedless fruits (parthenocarpic fruits). Therefore, parthenocarpy is a valuable tool to elucidate the genetic and molecular bases that control fruit set process. In this study we report the production and characterization of male-sterile transgenic plants that produce parthenocarpic fruits in the Moneymaker tomato cultivar. We generated male-sterility using the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology. The programmable protein Cas9 targets one of the genes involved in the early steps of pollen development. The prevention of pollen development at early stages can be considered as a useful tool to promote fruit set and to obtain seedless fruits. The edited plants could be also useful to be used as parental lines in hybrid breeding approaches.

[ES] El desarrollo del ovario en un fruto (cuajado del fruto) depende de que ocurra la polinización y fertilización del mismo y puede verse comprometido por condiciones ambientales desfavorables. Sin embargo, en algunas especies el cuajado del fruto puede desacoplarse de la fertilización generando así frutos sin semillas (partenocárpicos). La partenocarpia es un carácter apreciado en la industria y a la vez, una herramienta valiosa para dilucidar las bases genéticas y moleculares que controlan el proceso de cuajado del fruto. En este estudio se obtienen y caracterizan plantas transgénicas estériles masculinas que producen frutos partenocárpicos en el cultivar de tomate Moneymaker. La esterilidad masculina es generada mediante la tecnología de edición génica CRISPR/Cas9. La proteína programable Cas9 tiene como diana uno de los genes que intervienen en los estadios iniciales del desarrollo del polen. El impedimento del desarrollo temprano del polen se puede considerar como una herramienta útil para promover el cuajado del fruto y obtener frutos sin semillas. Las plantas editadas obtenidas podrían ser útiles como líneas parentales en programas de obtención de híbridos., [EN] The development of the ovary into a fruit (fruit set) depends on pollination and fertilization, which may be compromised by extreme environmental conditions. However, in some species, the onset of the fruit can be uncoupled from fertilization, generating seedless fruits (parthenocarpic fruits). Therefore, parthenocarpy is a valuable tool to elucidate the genetic and molecular bases that control fruit set process. In this study we report the production and characterization of male-sterile transgenic plants that produce parthenocarpic fruits in the Moneymaker tomato cultivar. We generated male-sterility using the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology. The programmable protein Cas9 targets one of the genes involved in the early steps of pollen development. The prevention of pollen development at early stages can be considered as a useful tool to promote fruit set and to obtain seedless fruits. The edited plants could be also useful to be used as parental lines in hybrid breeding approaches.

[ES] La utilización de ácido giberélico al inicio del cambio de color retrasa la maduración del fruto del caqui y consigue posponer su recolección, lo que se utiliza como estrategia comercial para ordenar la comercialización del mismo. Aunque la concentración saturante de esta materia se estableció en 30 mg·l -1 , en la práctica se utilizan 50 mg·l -1 , y, además se repite la aplicación hasta 4 ó 5 veces con el fin de conseguir el máximo retraso posible en la recolección del fruto. Pero, el tratamiento, por una parte, y, el retraso de la cosecha por otra, retardan la caída de hojas, y la entrada en latencia de las yemas, las cuales en primavera brotan sin completar su maduración, y desarrollan, por tanto, frutos que no alcanzan el tamaño adecuado. El efecto de los tratamientos sobre la latencia se desconoce, y ello, se aborda en este Trabajo Final de Grado, con el fin de conocer la razón del desarrollo deficiente de las flores y frutos. Para ello, se estudia el efecto comparado de ambas concentraciones de AG, y su acción sobre el avance hormonal de las yemas y el consumo de reservas de carbohidratos almacenados en la corteza de las ramas próxima a las yemas. Por otra parte, y dado que la aplicación de auxinas de síntesis al inicio de la fase lineal de crecimiento aumentan el tamaño final del fruto en el caqui, la utilización del ácido 3,5,6 – tricloro – 2 – piridiloxiacético (3,5,6 – TPA) y la realización del rayado se presentan como técnicas que podrían ser de utilidad para restituir la pérdida del tamaño del fruto, derivada de las aplicaciones de ácido giberélico en otoño y del retraso en la recolección, aspecto que también se aborda en este trabajo. Nuestros resultados concluyen que i) la aplicación de 30 mg·l -1 retrasa con la misma intensidad que 50 mg·l -1 la coloración del caqui ‘Rojo Brillante’, pero con un menor grado de afección de la latencia y, por tanto, de la brotación y desarrollo inicial del fruto, y ii) la aplicación de 15 mg·l -1 de la auxina de sí, [EN] Gibberellic acid (AG) applied at the beginning of fruit colour change significantly delays fruit ripening and harvest date of persimmon, thus increasing growers returns. However, although GA shows a saturating effect for 30 mg·l -1 , growers apply 50 mg·l -1 and repeat the application by three in order to delay harvesting as long as possible. However, leaf also delays the senescence process and abscission, and, hence, the onset of dormancy is significantly delayed. Consequently, buds do not accumulate chilling enough for an appropriated sprout and flower development, and, finally, fruit size is dramatically reduced. The effect of this kind of treatments on dormancy remains unknown, and it is addressed in this Final Degree Project in order to know the reason for the deficient development of flowers and fruits. The comparative effect of both concentrations of GA, and their effect on the time-course of the hormonal content and carbohydrate consumption along the bud dormancy was studied with this purpose. Besides, since the application of some synthetic auxins has been proved to increase final fruit size when applied at the onset of fruit growth, 3,5,6 - trichloro - 2 – pyridyloxyacetic acid (3,5,6 - TPA) was used to improve fruit development to overcome the depressive effect of AG when applied to delay fruit ripening. Our results conclude that i) the application of 30 mg·l -1 delays fruit ripening of ‘Rojo Brillante’ persimmon with the same intensity as 50 mg·l -1 , and with a lower negative effect on bud dormancy, allowing a better sprouting and fruit development, and ii) the application of 15 mg·l -1 of 3,5,6-TPA significantly increased final fruit size up to similar values to those of the untreated and not delayed harvesting tress., [CA] La utilització d'àcid giberèlic a l'inici del canvi de color retarda la maduració del fruit del caqui i aconsegueix posposar la seua recol·lecció, la qual cosa s'utilitza com a estratègia comercial per a ordenar la comercialització del mateix. Encara que la concentració saturant d'esta matèria es va establir en 30 mg·l -1 , en la pràctica s'utilitzen 50 mg·l -1 , i, a més es repeteix l'aplicació fins a 4 o 5 vegades a fi d'aconseguir el màxim retard possible en la recol·lecció del fruit. Però, el tractament, d'una banda, i, el retard de la collita d'una altra, retarden la caiguda de fulls, i l'entrada en latència de les gemmes, les quals a la primavera brollen sense completar la seua maduració, i desenvolupen, per tant, fruits que no aconsegueixen la grandària adequada. L'efecte dels tractaments sobre la latència es desconeix, i això, s'aborda en aquest Treball Final de Grau, a fi de conèixer la raó del desenvolupament deficient de les flors i fruits. Per a això, s'estudia l'efecte comparat d'ambdues concentracions d'AG, i la seua acció sobre l'avanç hormonal de les gemmes i el consum de reserves de carbohidrats emmagatzemats en la corfa de les branques pròxima a les gemmes. D'altra banda, i atès que l'aplicació d'auxines de síntesis a l'inici de la fase lineal de creixement augmenten la grandària final del fruit en el caqui, la utilització de l'àcid 3,5,6 – tricloro – 2 – piridiloxiacétic (3,5,6 – TPA) i la realització del ratllat es presenten com a tècniques que podrien ser d'utilitat per a restituir la pèrdua de la grandària del fruit, derivada de les aplicacions d'àcid giberélic a la tardor i del retard en la recol·lecció, aspecte que també s'aborda en aquest treball. Els nostres resultats conclouen que i) l'aplicació de 30 mg·l-1 retarda amb la mateixa intensitat que 50 mg·l-1 la coloració del caqui ‘Roig Brillant’, però amb un menor grau d'afecció de la latència i, per tant, de la brotació i desenvolupament inicial del fruit, i ii) l'aplicació de 15 mg·l

Post-embryonic organogenesis is a feature unique to plants, an example of which is flower and fruit production. Previous work on strawberry fruit development has focused primarily on the latter stages, including ripening. Comparatively little is known about the molecular events underpinning fruit set, the pivotal stage at which fruit development proceeds or terminates. This thesis investigates early fruit development using Fragaria vesca, a diploid strawberry, as a model. In collaboration with a bioinformatician, I generated gene co-expression networks from 92 previously generated RNA-Seq libraries profiling multiple tissues and stages of strawberry flower and fruit development. I demonstrate the utility of co-expression networks in illuminating molecular processes underlying fruit development. Experimental validation of the networks includes demonstration of increased iron transport soon after fertilization and identification of FveUFO1 as an important regulator of floral meristem determinacy and floral organ identity. Using the co-expression networks, I discovered the surprising expression of FvFT1, a homolog of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), in the fleshy fruit immediately post-fertilization. In many plant species, the FT peptide is a non-cell autonomous signal that initiates flowering in response to inductive photoperiod. I found that FvFT1 expression is responsive to temperature, but not photoperiod, in strawberry fruit. Further, transcriptional activation is detectable in the vascular bundles connecting the fruit to the seeds, raising the possibility that FvFT1 may facilitate cross-tissue communication. Signal from an FvFT1-GFP translational fusion protein is visible in seed nuclei despite its localized transcription in the vasculature. However, analysis of FvFT1 RNAi plants failed to identify a fruit phenotype, possibly due to redundancy among three FvFT paralogs. Finally, to develop additional research tools for F. vesca, I isolated and tested fruit tissue-specific

[EN] Fruit set is an essential process to ensure successful sexual plant reproduction. The development of the flower into a fruit is actively repressed in the absence of pollination. However, some cultivars from a few species are able to develop seedless fruits overcoming the standard restriction of unpollinated ovaries to growth. We report here the identification of the tomato hydra mutant that produces seedless (parthenocarpic) fruits. Seedless fruit production in hydra plants is linked to the absence of both male and female sporocyte development. The HYDRA gene is therefore essential for the initiation of sporogenesis in tomato. Using positional cloning, virus-induced gene silencing and expression analysis experiments, we identified the HYDRA gene and demonstrated that it encodes the tomato orthologue of SPOROCYTELESS/NOZZLE (SPL/NZZ) of Arabidopsis. We found that the precocious growth of the ovary is associated with changes in the expression of genes involved in gibberellin (GA) metabolism. Our results support the conservation of the function of SPL-like genes in the control of sporogenesis in plants. Moreover, this study uncovers a new function for the tomato SlSPL/HYDRA gene in the control of fruit initiation.

The allergen Pru p 3, a peach lipid transfer protein, has been well studied. However, its physiological function remains to be elucidated. Our results showed that Pru p 3 usually carries a lipid ligand that play an essential role in its function in plants. Using ESI-qToF, we observed that the ligand was a derivative of camptothecin binding to phytosphingosine, wich that is inserted into the hydrophobic tunnel of the protein. In addition, the described ligand displayed topoisomerase I activity inhibition and self-fluorescence, both recognized as camptothecin properties. During flower development, the highest expression of Pru p 3 was detected in the styles of pollinated flowers, in contrast to its non-expression in unpollinated pistils, where expression decreased after anthesis. During ripening, the expression of Pru p 3 were observed mainly in peel but not in pulp. In this sense, Pru p 3 protein was also localized in trichomes covering the fruit epidermis.

[EN] Gibberellins (GAs) are plant hormones that regulate most plant life cycle aspects, including flowering and fruit development. Here, we demonstrate the implication of GAs in ovule development. DELLA proteins, negative GA response regulators, act as positive factors for ovule integument development in a mechanism that involves transcription factor ABERRANT TESTA SHAPE (ATS). The seeds of the della global mutant, a complete loss-of-function of DELLA, and the ats-1 mutant are remarkably similar, with a round shape, a disorganized testa, and viviparism. These defects are the result of an alteration in integuments that fail to fully develop and are shorter than in wild-type plants. ats-1 also shows some GA-related phenotypes, for example, higher germination rates and early flowering. In fact, ats-1 has elevated GA levels due to the activation of GA biosynthesis genes, which indicates that ATS inhibits GA biosynthesis. Moreover, DELLAs and ATS proteins interact, which suggests the formation of a transcriptional complex that regulates the expression of genes involved in integument growth. Therefore, the repression of GA biosynthesis by ATS would result in the stabilization of DELLAs to ensure correct ATS-DELLA complex formation. The requirement of both activities to coordinate proper ovule development strongly argues that the ATS-DELLA complex acts as a key molecular factor. This work provides the first evidence for a role of GAs in ovule and seed development.

[EN] Gibberellins (GAs) are plant hormones that regulate most plant life cycle aspects, including flowering and fruit development. Here, we demonstrate the implication of GAs in ovule development. DELLA proteins, negative GA response regulators, act as positive factors for ovule integument development in a mechanism that involves transcription factor ABERRANT TESTA SHAPE (ATS). The seeds of the della global mutant, a complete loss-of-function of DELLA, and the ats-1 mutant are remarkably similar, with a round shape, a disorganized testa, and viviparism. These defects are the result of an alteration in integuments that fail to fully develop and are shorter than in wild-type plants. ats-1 also shows some GA-related phenotypes, for example, higher germination rates and early flowering. In fact, ats-1 has elevated GA levels due to the activation of GA biosynthesis genes, which indicates that ATS inhibits GA biosynthesis. Moreover, DELLAs and ATS proteins interact, which suggests the formation of a transcriptional complex that regulates the expression of genes involved in integument growth. Therefore, the repression of GA biosynthesis by ATS would result in the stabilization of DELLAs to ensure correct ATS-DELLA complex formation. The requirement of both activities to coordinate proper ovule development strongly argues that the ATS-DELLA complex acts as a key molecular factor. This work provides the first evidence for a role of GAs in ovule and seed development.

The regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in a high-carotenoid-accumulating Fe’i group Musa cultivar, “Asupina”, has been examined and compared to that of a low-carotenoid-accumulating cultivar, “Cavendish”, to understand the molecular basis underlying carotenogenesis during banana fruit development. Comparisons in the accumulation of carotenoid species, expression of isoprenoid genes, and product sequestration are reported. Key differences between the cultivars include greater carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4 (CCD4) expression in “Cavendish” and the conversion of amyloplasts to chromoplasts during fruit ripening in “Asupina”. Chromoplast development coincided with a reduction in dry matter content and fruit firmness. Chromoplasts were not observed in “Cavendish” fruits. Such information should provide important insights for future developments in the biofortification and breeding of banana.

Along with sugar accumulation and colour development, softening is an important physiological change during the onset of ripening in fruits. In this work, we investigated the relationships among major events during softening in grape (Vitis vinifera L.) by quantifying elasticity in individual berries. In addition, we delayed softening and inhibited sugar accumulation using a mechanical growth-preventing treatment in order to identify processes that are sugar and/or growth dependent. Ripening processes commenced on various days after anthesis, but always at similarly low elasticity and turgor. Much of the softening occurred in the absence of other changes in berry physiology investigated here. Several genes encoding key cell wall-modifying enzymes were not up-regulated until softening was largely completed, suggesting softening may result primarily from decreases in turgor. Similarly, there was no decrease in solute potential, increase in sugar concentration, or colour development until elasticity and turgor were near minimum values, and these processes were inhibited when berry growth was prevented. Increases in abscisic acid occurred early during softening and in the absence of significant expression of the V. vinifera 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenases. However, these increases were coincident with decreases in the abscisic acid catabolite diphasic acid, indicating that initial increases in abscisic acid may result from decreases in catabolism and/or exogenous import. These data suggest that softening, decreases in turgor, and increases in abscisic acid represent some of the earliest events during the onset of ripening. Later, physical growth, further increases in abscisic acid, and the accumulation of sugar are integral for colour development.

In recent decades, mean global temperatures have increased in parallel with a sharp rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, with apparent implications for precipitation patterns. The aim of the present work is to assess the sensitivity of different phenological stages of grapevine to temperature and to study the influence of other factors related to climate change (water availability and CO2 concentration) on this relationship. Grapevine phenological records from 9 plantings between 42.75°N and 46.03°N consisting of dates for budburst, flowering and fruit maturity were used. In addition, we used phenological data collected from 2 years of experiments with grapevine fruit-bearing cuttings with two grapevine varieties under two levels of water availability, two temperature regimes and two levels of CO2. Dormancy breaking and flowering were strongly dependent on spring temperature, while neither variation in temperature during the chilling period nor precipitation significantly affected budburst date. The time needed to reach fruit maturity diminished with increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation. Experiments under semi-controlled conditions revealed great sensitivity of berry development to both temperature and CO2. Water availability had significant interactions with both temperature and CO2; however, in general, water deficit delayed maturity when combined with other factors. Sensitivities to temperature and CO2 varied widely, but higher sensitivities appeared in the coolest year, particularly for the late ripening variety, ‘White Tempranillo’. The knowledge gained in whole plant physiology and multi stress approaches is crucial to predict the effects of climate change and to design mitigation and adaptation strategies allowing viticulture to cope with climate change.

In modern viticulture, grafting commercial grapevine varieties on interspecific rootstocks is a common practice required for conferring resistance to many biotic and abiotic stresses. Nevertheless, the use of rootstocks to gain these essential traits is also known to impact grape berry development and quality, although the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood. In grape berries, the onset of ripening (véraison) is regulated by a complex network of mobile signals including hormones such as auxins, ethylene, abscisic acid, and brassinosteroids. Recently, a new rootstock, designated M4, was selected based on its enhanced tolerance to water stress and medium vigor. This study investigates the effect of M4 on Cabernet Sauvignon (CS) berry development in comparison to the commercial 1103P rootstock. Physical and biochemical parameters showed that the ripening rate of CS berries is faster when grafted onto M4. A multifactorial analysis performed on mRNA-Seq data obtained from skin and pulp of berries grown in both graft combinations revealed that genes controlling auxin action (ARF and Aux/IAA) represent one of main categories affected by the rootstock genotype. Considering that the level of auxin tightly regulates the transcription of these genes, we investigated the behavior of the main gene families involved in auxin biosynthesis and conjugation. Molecular and biochemical analyses confirmed a link between the rate of berry development and the modulation of auxin metabolism. Moreover, the data indicate that this phenomenon appears to be particularly pronounced in skin tissue in comparison to the flesh., SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

[EN] Background: In climacteric fruit-bearing species, the onset of fruit ripening is marked by a transient rise in respiration rate and autocatalytic ethylene production, followed by rapid deterioration in fruit quality. In non-climacteric species, there is no increase in respiration or ethylene production at the beginning or during fruit ripening. Melon is unusual in having climacteric and non-climacteric varieties, providing an interesting model system to compare both ripening types. Transcriptomic analysis of developing melon fruits from Védrantais and Dulce (climacteric) and Piel de sapo and PI 161375 (non-climacteric) varieties was performed to understand the molecular mechanisms that differentiate the two fruit ripening types. Results: Fruits were harvested at 15, 25, 35 days after pollination and at fruit maturity. Transcript profiling was performed using an oligo-based microarray with 75 K probes. Genes linked to characteristic traits of fruit ripening were differentially expressed between climacteric and non-climacteric types, as well as several transcription factor genes and genes encoding enzymes involved in sucrose catabolism. The expression patterns of some genes in PI 161375 fruits were either intermediate between. Piel de sapo and the climacteric varieties, or more similar to the latter. PI 161375 fruits also accumulated some carotenoids, a characteristic trait of climacteric varieties. Conclusions: Simultaneous changes in transcript abundance indicate that there is coordinated reprogramming of gene expression during fruit development and at the onset of ripening in both climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. The expression patterns of genes related to ethylene metabolism, carotenoid accumulation, cell wall integrity and transcriptional regulation varied between genotypes and was consistent with the differences in their fruit ripening characteristics. There were differences between climacteric and non-climacteric varieties in the expression of genes

[EN] Background: In climacteric fruit-bearing species, the onset of fruit ripening is marked by a transient rise in respiration rate and autocatalytic ethylene production, followed by rapid deterioration in fruit quality. In non-climacteric species, there is no increase in respiration or ethylene production at the beginning or during fruit ripening. Melon is unusual in having climacteric and non-climacteric varieties, providing an interesting model system to compare both ripening types. Transcriptomic analysis of developing melon fruits from Védrantais and Dulce (climacteric) and Piel de sapo and PI 161375 (non-climacteric) varieties was performed to understand the molecular mechanisms that differentiate the two fruit ripening types. Results: Fruits were harvested at 15, 25, 35 days after pollination and at fruit maturity. Transcript profiling was performed using an oligo-based microarray with 75 K probes. Genes linked to characteristic traits of fruit ripening were differentially expressed between climacteric and non-climacteric types, as well as several transcription factor genes and genes encoding enzymes involved in sucrose catabolism. The expression patterns of some genes in PI 161375 fruits were either intermediate between. Piel de sapo and the climacteric varieties, or more similar to the latter. PI 161375 fruits also accumulated some carotenoids, a characteristic trait of climacteric varieties. Conclusions: Simultaneous changes in transcript abundance indicate that there is coordinated reprogramming of gene expression during fruit development and at the onset of ripening in both climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. The expression patterns of genes related to ethylene metabolism, carotenoid accumulation, cell wall integrity and transcriptional regulation varied between genotypes and was consistent with the differences in their fruit ripening characteristics. There were differences between climacteric and non-climacteric varieties in the expression of genes

[EN] A novel tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) mutant affected in reproductive development, excessive number of floral organs (eno), is described in this study. The eno plants yielded flowers with a higher number of floral organs in the three innermost floral whorls and larger fruits than those found in wild-type plants. Scanning-electron microscopy study indicated that the rise in floral organ number and fruit size correlates with an increased size of floral meristem at early developmental stages. It has been reported that mutation at the FASCIATED (FAS) gene causes the development of flowers with supernumerary organs; however, complementation test and genetic mapping analyses proved that ENO is not an allele of the FAS locus. Furthermore, expression of WUSCHEL (SlWUS) and INHIBITOR OF MERISTEM ACTIVITY (IMA), the two main regulators of floral meristem activity in tomato, is altered in eno but not in fas flowers indicating that ENO could exert its function in the floral meristem independently of FAS. Interestingly, the eno mutation delayed the expression of IMA leading to a prolonged expression of SlWUS, which would explain the greater size of floral meristem. Taken together, results showed that ENO plays a significant role in the genetic pathway regulating tomato floral meristem development. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

[ES] En este trabajo se estudia el efecto que la aplicación de dos auxinas de síntesis, el ácido 2,4-diclorofenoxipropiónico (2-4 DP) y el ácido 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridoxilacético (3,5,6-TPA), tienen sobre la cinética de crecimiento del fruto de níspero japonés cuando se aplican en etapas avanzadas del desarrollo (706 BBCH) y su repercusión en la maduración. Para ello, se realizará un seguimiento del diámetro del fruto en el campo desde el momento del tratamiento hasta la recolección y se determinarán los parámetros de madurez interna (SST y acidez libre) y externa (color), así como la clasificación de los frutos según los diámetros comerciales. También se estudiará el desarrollo de este fruto bajo el punto de vista nutricional y hormonal, para lo cual se analizará el contenido endógeno en carbohidratos de consumo y de transporte, así como el de las diferentes hormonas., [EN] The synthetic auxins 2,4-DP (ethyl hexyl ester of 2,4-dichlorophenoxypropionic acid) and 3,5,6-TPA (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl-oxyacetic acid), applied at the concentration of 35 and 15 mg l-1 , respectively, during the linear fruit growth stage, advanced harvest date 7 days on average, with no changes on internal fruit characteristics and colour. Frequency distribution of fruit diameter was also significantly modified by treatments, treated fruit enhanced commercial value. Sucrose and fructose concentration increased in treated fruit with regard to control fruit, suggesting and enhanced fruit sink capacity due to the auxins. Treated fruit advanced the biosynthesis of abscisic acid and catabolism of indoleacetic acid and t-zeatin, in accordance with advanced fruit ripening.

An essential step in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway is the formation of phytoene by phytoene synthase (PSY). In this study, three new genes coding PSYs (CpPSYA, CpPSYB, and CpPSYC) were cloned from Cucurbita pepo and their expression patterns analysed in three cultivars of summer squash which had a different carotenoid content. The gene sequences had a high similarity with those from other plant species, and their predicted proteins were significantly different from each other. A phylogenetic analysis indicates that CpPSYA and CpPSYB shared a high homology and were also homologous with PSYs from others cucurbits, whereas CpPSYC was more closely related to orthologues from strawberry and carrot. An expression analysis revealed that CpPSYA had a higher expression in flowers compared to leaves and showed a differential expression during fruit development. The amount of CpPSYA transcript was higher in fruits with a higher carotenoid content than in those with a lower carotenoid content. However, CpPSYB and CpPSYC showed a relatively high expression in leaves, and their expression in fruits varied among the different cultivars and fruit tissues. These results suggest that the CpPSY genes were under different regulatory mechanisms and they may have different roles in C. pepo.

[ES] En este trabajo se estudia el efecto que la aplicación de dos auxinas de síntesis, el ácido 2,4-diclorofenoxipropiónico (2-4 DP) y el ácido 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridoxilacético (3,5,6-TPA), tienen sobre la cinética de crecimiento del fruto de níspero japonés cuando se aplican en etapas avanzadas del desarrollo (706 BBCH) y su repercusión en la maduración. Para ello, se realizará un seguimiento del diámetro del fruto en el campo desde el momento del tratamiento hasta la recolección y se determinarán los parámetros de madurez interna (SST y acidez libre) y externa (color), así como la clasificación de los frutos según los diámetros comerciales. También se estudiará el desarrollo de este fruto bajo el punto de vista nutricional y hormonal, para lo cual se analizará el contenido endógeno en carbohidratos de consumo y de transporte, así como el de las diferentes hormonas., [EN] The synthetic auxins 2,4-DP (ethyl hexyl ester of 2,4-dichlorophenoxypropionic acid) and 3,5,6-TPA (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl-oxyacetic acid), applied at the concentration of 35 and 15 mg l-1 , respectively, during the linear fruit growth stage, advanced harvest date 7 days on average, with no changes on internal fruit characteristics and colour. Frequency distribution of fruit diameter was also significantly modified by treatments, treated fruit enhanced commercial value. Sucrose and fructose concentration increased in treated fruit with regard to control fruit, suggesting and enhanced fruit sink capacity due to the auxins. Treated fruit advanced the biosynthesis of abscisic acid and catabolism of indoleacetic acid and t-zeatin, in accordance with advanced fruit ripening.

[EN] A novel tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) mutant affected in reproductive development, excessive number of floral organs (eno), is described in this study. The eno plants yielded flowers with a higher number of floral organs in the three innermost floral whorls and larger fruits than those found in wild-type plants. Scanning-electron microscopy study indicated that the rise in floral organ number and fruit size correlates with an increased size of floral meristem at early developmental stages. It has been reported that mutation at the FASCIATED (FAS) gene causes the development of flowers with supernumerary organs; however, complementation test and genetic mapping analyses proved that ENO is not an allele of the FAS locus. Furthermore, expression of WUSCHEL (SlWUS) and INHIBITOR OF MERISTEM ACTIVITY (IMA), the two main regulators of floral meristem activity in tomato, is altered in eno but not in fas flowers indicating that ENO could exert its function in the floral meristem independently of FAS. Interestingly, the eno mutation delayed the expression of IMA leading to a prolonged expression of SlWUS, which would explain the greater size of floral meristem. Taken together, results showed that ENO plays a significant role in the genetic pathway regulating tomato floral meristem development. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

[ES] En este trabajo se estudia el efecto que la aplicación de dos auxinas de síntesis, el ácido 2,4-diclorofenoxipropiónico (2-4 DP) y el ácido 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridoxilacético (3,5,6-TPA), tienen sobre la cinética de crecimiento del fruto de níspero japonés cuando se aplican en etapas avanzadas del desarrollo (706 BBCH) y su repercusión en la maduración. Para ello, se realizará un seguimiento del diámetro del fruto en el campo desde el momento del tratamiento hasta la recolección y se determinarán los parámetros de madurez interna (SST y acidez libre) y externa (color), así como la clasificación de los frutos según los diámetros comerciales. También se estudiará el desarrollo de este fruto bajo el punto de vista nutricional y hormonal, para lo cual se analizará el contenido endógeno en carbohidratos de consumo y de transporte, así como el de las diferentes hormonas., [EN] The synthetic auxins 2,4-DP (ethyl hexyl ester of 2,4-dichlorophenoxypropionic acid) and 3,5,6-TPA (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl-oxyacetic acid), applied at the concentration of 35 and 15 mg l-1 , respectively, during the linear fruit growth stage, advanced harvest date 7 days on average, with no changes on internal fruit characteristics and colour. Frequency distribution of fruit diameter was also significantly modified by treatments, treated fruit enhanced commercial value. Sucrose and fructose concentration increased in treated fruit with regard to control fruit, suggesting and enhanced fruit sink capacity due to the auxins. Treated fruit advanced the biosynthesis of abscisic acid and catabolism of indoleacetic acid and t-zeatin, in accordance with advanced fruit ripening.

[ES] En este trabajo se estudia el efecto que la aplicación de dos auxinas de síntesis, el ácido 2,4-diclorofenoxipropiónico (2-4 DP) y el ácido 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridoxilacético (3,5,6-TPA), tienen sobre la cinética de crecimiento del fruto de níspero japonés cuando se aplican en etapas avanzadas del desarrollo (706 BBCH) y su repercusión en la maduración. Para ello, se realizará un seguimiento del diámetro del fruto en el campo desde el momento del tratamiento hasta la recolección y se determinarán los parámetros de madurez interna (SST y acidez libre) y externa (color), así como la clasificación de los frutos según los diámetros comerciales. También se estudiará el desarrollo de este fruto bajo el punto de vista nutricional y hormonal, para lo cual se analizará el contenido endógeno en carbohidratos de consumo y de transporte, así como el de las diferentes hormonas., [EN] The synthetic auxins 2,4-DP (ethyl hexyl ester of 2,4-dichlorophenoxypropionic acid) and 3,5,6-TPA (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl-oxyacetic acid), applied at the concentration of 35 and 15 mg l-1 , respectively, during the linear fruit growth stage, advanced harvest date 7 days on average, with no changes on internal fruit characteristics and colour. Frequency distribution of fruit diameter was also significantly modified by treatments, treated fruit enhanced commercial value. Sucrose and fructose concentration increased in treated fruit with regard to control fruit, suggesting and enhanced fruit sink capacity due to the auxins. Treated fruit advanced the biosynthesis of abscisic acid and catabolism of indoleacetic acid and t-zeatin, in accordance with advanced fruit ripening.