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The paper is concerned with chosen problems of regional integration in underdeveloped countries, especially in Latin American countries. Those countries were selected in order to make clear the theoretical formulation which has been motivated by a higher level of integration processes on the Latin American subcontinent than in other underdeveloped countries. The author expresses the opinion that integration is one of the most important factors which accelerate the economic development of the mentioned above countries. The opinion is based on the possibilities of mitigating the efects of existing growth-barriers, namely the insufficient accumulation, relatively limited internal market — by taking advantage of the regional division of labour. The aim of this paper is to define the program of integration, whose realization would permit to obtain a maximum advantage of international division of labour and thus to promote the economic development. This program should concentrate primarily on the production sphere, especially on a common program or at least the coordination of the development of specific production branches, on the national economies as a whole and finally on the trade pattern, which should be accordingly shaped. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The subject of the analysis is a problem of the theory of growth and econometric models. The concept of a complex analysis of the development of the Polish economy in 1971 - 1975, namely a model of dynamic equilibrium, is presented. The time horizon of the model has been divided into five shorter periods of time, each one year long, called stages. There was elaborated a macroeconomic multistage mathematical models in which are considered the effects of three basic factors of growth, namely: the amount of capital invested, the degree of modernization of the production apparatus and the "human capital", on individual components of the national income in various stages and in all the horizon. The "human capital" is understood as the potential of education, science, technical progress, health care, sport, tourism, rest, culture and arts accumulated over a certain period of time as a result of the activity of a society in the nonmaterial sphere of production. The subject matter of the paper is the optimization of production — financial flows in the national economy using a multistage transportation problem. As parameters of the model there have been assumed the components of the produced national income (amortization, wage fund, profit and import), called input, the components of the national income distributed (consumption, investments, export and inventories), called output and the coefficients of efficiency of input. Decision variables are the production-financial flows from the input funds to the output funds. The objective function is the minimization of the total social cost of economic activities over the whole time horizon. It is assumed that the model has been subjected to balance constraints formulated in the paper. From the analysis of the optimum solution it results that in the years 1971-1975 there will exist additional possibilities of a better utilization of productive resources and capacities of the national economy, particularly possibilities of raising the wage fund, the consumption, the investment outlays and the export and possibilities, of decreasing the inventories. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The author comes to the conclusion that there is a very uneven distribution of sources of raw materials in the CMEA countries and that is why the foreign trade of wood, woodwork and cellulose-paper products among these countries is highly developed. The CMEA countries as a whole have some surplus of wood raw miaterial (with the exception of brioadleaved logs), woodwork and news-print. On the other hand, cellulose and other paper and board lines are in short supply in spite of a constant and marked increase in output. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The analysis of the variants of sector development from the point of view of regional income, proposed by the particular government offices, belongs to the important goals of regional planning in the process of drawing up a plan. The author of this paper comes to the conclusion that the up-to-date applied tools of analysis are not sufficient for a proper realization of this task because they give only fundamentals to isolate the so called direct income effects. In fact, however, the increase of direct incomes, considering the principle of multiplier reaction, gives rise to their further growth known as indirect and induced income effect. When we apply the input-output model in the account, however these multiplier income effects may by quite well distinguished and estimated. Practical application of this model allows us to estimate the disaggregated sector income multipliers. In cases when only the dimensions of direct income are known, these multipliers can be helpful in the analysis of the economic efficiency of the particular sector of the regional economy from the point of view of income maximization. Presenting various types of multipliers, the author divides them into two groups: classical and non-classical groups of multipliers derived from input- -output models. In this paper a simple numeral example has been given to make the reader familiar with the calculations preceeding these multipliers. The final part of this paper refers to the comparisons of income multipliers derived from input-output models as well as from the economic base model. On the basis of these comparisons the author states that in the Polish regional planning practice the income multiplier, derived from the economic base model, cannot be dealt with as a substitute of multipliers obtained from the regional input- -output models. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The concept of trade has been considered in this paper mainly because of the aim of existance and activity of this discipline of economy. But simultaneously there are other elements of this concept which ought to be considered e.g. the subject and the sphere of activity. The entire concept of the purpose of trade is confined in two basic criteria i.e. profitableness of the enterprise and the needs of the community. Some concepts take an intermediate position in this distribution. Definitions disposed to answer the first criteria regard trade as the professional purchase of economic goods for the purpose of selling to achieve profit. In this way the point of gravity in the commercial activity moves from the activity of exchange to the flow of benefits in the form of merchant's profit. The concept that the problem of the purpose of trade can be solved on the grounds of profit remains in close contact with the principle accepted in capitalistic economy in running an enterprise. This concept of purpose can not explain the social and economic role of trade. The universalistic concepts represent a totally different opinion. By replacing the narrow meaning of enterprise by the broader meaning of the needs of the community the aims of these concepts change from the pursuit of profit to the method of procedure. The social functions of trade show distinctly the concepts of socialistic trade. Since numerous definitions of trade based on social grounds stress variously the meaning of different exchangeable functions and do not make its purpose precise, the following definition has been proposed in this paper: Trade is the professional mediation in the exchange of goods accomplished by means of purchase deed and bill of sale depending on association and adjustment of the aims of market methods dictated by the bidders and the receivers of goods, for the purpose of optimalization of meeting the demand for consumptive and industrial goods, and minimalization of the time of transactions. The salient characteristic of this definition is, that it joins and combines all positive points of definitions of concept of trade applied before. It results also from the apparent contemporary level and developing tendency in this of materialistic culture of industrialized communities. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

In the paper ideas and criteria of classification concerning an analysis of consumption of municipal water (tap water) by consumers were presented and the basic and auxiliary determinants of the consumption were specified. Based on the data provided by the Central Statistical Office and with help of tables and diagrams an analysis of the structure and dynamics of water consumption and equipment of town groups in Poland with water supply and sewage system in the period of 1955 - 1970 was made. Special attention was given to water consumption in households and an attempt was made to establish interrelation between water consumption and chosen variables: population, living space, dwelling units, gas consumption. The calculated coefficient of multiple correlation was significant; it made possible to establish an equation of regression of several variables. Development of a region is determined to a considerable degree by production and consumption of municipal water; therefore an estimation of future consumption of water is an important matter. Actual consumption differs from to-day's standards and it is indispensable to work out suitable prognosis methods or to adapt methods used abroad. In the paper mathematical and statistical methods of forecasting consumption were discussed while the necessity of a verification of those methods was emphasized. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The aim of the study here reported was to analyze the utility of a mail questionnaire and its auxiliary procedures as tools of supplementary contact with respondents. Such contacts may be sources of additional data, as well as of information on the respondents’ attitudes towards the initial research situation. The basic research, performed by the Chair of General Sociology of the University in Łódź, dealt with social stratification of the inhabitants of Łódź, as well as with its psychological aspects. The interview questionnaire contained over 50 questions; one part of them was designed to characterize objective situations of respondents and. of their families, another part asked about the feeling of social differentiation, about the personal „vision“ of class structure, about the perception of basic lines of social division, etc. As interviewers were active 42 advanced students of sociology after detailed instruction. The study covered 1000 heads of families, constituting a representative sample of their group Respondents with no less than high school education were summoned for the second time. After almost four months since the initial research contact a mail questionnaire was sent to a new sample of 232 persons. 84 persons (36,2% of the sample) sent their questionnaires back filled in. Extra measures had been taken at certain time spans to increase that number: mail urge that resulted in 55 new responses (23,7%), and then individual visits that furnished questionnaire data from another group of 64 persons (27,6%). Out of the 29 remaining members of the sample 12 (i.e. 5,2%) refused to collaborate, while 17 (7,3%) could not be reached at all. The paper presents an analysis of some factors influencing the number of returned questionnaires in a mail survey. It has been found that such factors as education, occupation or income were not significant in that respect. The important factor was rather the level of familiarity of respondents with problems dealt with in the questionnaire Three degrees of such familiarity were distinguished and consequently it was found that questionnaires had been returned by mail by 69,4% of respondents with a high degree, by 64,2% of those with a medium degree and only by 30,0% of those with a low degree of problem familiarity. The final part of the paper is devoted to an analysis of application of a mail questionnaire for studying respondents’ opinions about interviewers. Content analysis of responses to the question about positive features of the interviewer who contacted the respondent revealed that most respondents (59,7%) remarked suck features as may be included under the heading of good manners and breeding. The group next in number (33,5%) pointed to intellectual qualities of their interviewers and their general level of learning; positive features of character were mentioned by 32,1% of respondents and the skill in conversation by 31,1%. A lesser number of respondents (14,8%) mentioned pleasant appearance of interviewers and their knowledge of problems dealt with in the questionnaire (11,4%). Some points of interest arised as a result of an analysis of the distribution of answers to the discussed question with relation to the respondents’ age and education, as well as to sex of interviewers. Respondents in the age group of 19 to 40 years much more often than elder ones pointed out the interviewer intellectual qualities and his or her general level of learning (38,0% as against 29,1%), as well as skill in conversation (37,0% as against 25,3%). Elder respondents, on the other hand, were more apt to emphasize the interviewer’s pleasant appearance (17,5% as against 12,0%) and his or her positive features of character (34% as against 30%). Respondents with college education were more apt to note the interviewer’s knowledge of problems dealt with in the questionnaire than those with only high school education (17,6% as against 7,8%). Women interviewers were more often appreciated in terms of their manners and breeding (65% as against 50,7%), as well as in terms of their skill in conversation (35,7% as against 23,4%) than their male colleagues; on the other hand, men were more often than women appreciated in terms of their knowledge of topics mentioned in the questionnaire (15,6% as against 8,7%), their positive features of character (36,4% as against 29,4%) and their intellectual qualities (35,0% as against 32,5%). Only 7 persons (3,4% of the sample) expressed critical opinions about the interviewers they had met during the survey. The distribution of responses to the question about positive features of an ideal interviewer is rather similar to the distribution of answers.to the question here discussed. In the end it is emphasized that a repeated research contact is advantageous in a double manner, as it allows an appreciation of the validity of data already collected, and as it positively influences the interviewers’ reliability and exactitude in their work.

In post-war research made in Poland by means of standardized questionnaire interviews relatively little attention has been paid to verification of data. There is no solid tool for a sociologist to verify data and to secure information about atmosphere and conditions of interviews. A questionnaire addressed to an interviewer here discussed is an attempt at elaborating such a tool. At the end of each interview questionnaire a few questions of various kinds have been inserted (closed and open-ended, about facts and about opinions), and an interviewer was required to answer them immediately after he left his respondent. Such a questionnaire addressed to interviewers was introduced for the first time in the Bełchatów survey of 1963 and then used again in some other studies, with various aims in view. Those aims may be described as (1) verification and selection of interview data; (2) collecting of data necessary for separate methodological investigations; (3) furnishing of general information about atmosphere and conditions of interviews. In the present paper, based on an analysis of 931 questionnaires collected during two surveys, the author presents an analysis made chiefly from the point of view of the third of these aims. Thus she considers the type of material that can be furnished by a questionnaire addressed to interviewers, how it can help to define the social situation of an interview, in what ways it can help a sociologist to verify, and interpret respondents’ utterances. The paper analyses from such a standpoint social situations of interviews in two different local and social environments (a big city and a small town). The following problems are discussed: (1) the influence of the place and circumstances of an interview on the respondent’s verbal reactions; (2) conditions of an interview such as work done by a respondent during the interview, noises, presence of other persons and their active behavior; (3) the manner of receiving interviewers in two social milieus (treats, attitudes towards women interviewers, preparations of respondents to the interview and their appearance, number and topics of conversations initiated by respondents etc.); (4) respondents’ attitudes towards interviewers and an interview (the following attitudes have been distinguished: friendly, critical and unfriendly, anxious and mistrusting, ashamed); (5) interest on part, of respondents in sociology and social research in general and in the research in which they participated; (6) opinions and appreciations of respondents as conversation partners by interviewers (particular attention was paid to the important problem of what is called sincerity of respondents). Conclusions of the article concern both the analysed interviews and the general possibilities of using a questionnaire addressed to interviewers. Some of them are practical suggestions, other are of a general methodological character. Thus it is maintained that differences of interview situations in a big city and with educated respondents on one hand and in a small town among laborers in the other are mainly connected with different styles of living and manners predominant in both, environments. This finding is of practical importance for sociologists. Educated respondents were more apt to make an interview into an informal social occasion; they were more ready to collaborate but their responses were also more often conventional and pretentious than those of laborers, etc. It is also suggested that sociologists should try to make interview conditions during one survey possibly most uniform (e. g., to contact respondents either only in their homes or only at work), to eliminate other persons from interview situations, etc. It must be remembered when using the technique of a questionnaire addressed to interviewers that it can and did furnish much, information about interview situations, but that it is by no means free from defects. E.g., it does not tell, anything about an interviewer’s behavior during an interview. Again, appreciations and interpretations of facts by particular interviewers may be fairly different; some, of them may create images of respondents and of their behavior, thus biasing their observations and consequently their reports. When using a questionnaire to interviewers we require that they make some special observations besides their normal work with respondents. Thus they must be specially instructed by the supervising sociologist. More searching methodological analysis of data secured by that tool ought in future run parallel with analysis of answers of respondents to particular questions asked during an interview.

Two problems involved in a methodological interpretation of data collected in a questionnaire survey of students are discussed in the paper. The survey was" designed to explain the low efficiency of teaching on the Law Faculty of the University of Łódź. It was performed in the year 1962/63. Two kinds of data were used for analysis: (1) 130 questionnaires filled in by freshmen; (2) a shorthand report of a group interview with a number of persons who had formerly answered to the questionnaire. The first problem was that of interpretation of blank spaces left by respondents in their questionnaires. Students were filling the questionnaire in groups of 20-25 persons. There were six such groups, with two members of the research team supervising each group. However, they only checked answers to questions about personal features. The questionnaire contained 26 essential questions besides. These questions asked about motivations to start legal studies, about causes of poor scores during the studies, about interests related with the main line of study etc. The decision whether to sign the questionnaire or not was left up to the respondents. In 130 questionnaires 272 spaces remained blank, and as there were 26 questions, each questioned was not answered in 8% of cases in average. The distribution ranged from 0,0% to 17,6% of blanks per question. Thus the problem of relations between types of questions and respective numbers of blanks arised. No significant differences were found between questions classified, (a) as to their position in the questionnaire (whether printed at the beginning, in the middle or in the final part of the form); (b) as to whether they asked about opinions and attitudes or about non-psychological facts, (c) as easy or difficult; (d) as to their problem contents. However, a relationship was found between the number of blank spaces left and the fact of supplying his name by a respondent. Thus among 59 unsigned questionnaires there were only 27% forms filled without blanks, while among 71 signed forms there were no less than 52% of those completely filled in. This result was analysed form the point of view of practical suggestions for questionnaire surveys. It is believed in general that the feeling of anonymity positively influences the scope of informations supplied. Our findings seem to undermine the general validity of this opinion. Those respondents who signed their questionnaires with full names (and thus could not feel anonymous) were apt to supply more answers. As the next step it was investigated what categories of students were more apt to withhold answers to questionnaire items. 36% of the 130 students answered to all questions, 33% failed to answer to 1 or 2 questions, and 31% left out 3 or more questions. No significant relationship was found between those facts and social and demographic features of respondents. However, a distinct relationship appeared when students were classified as to their performance: poor students refrained from answering more, often than those who did at least fair (15% of questionnaires filled in completely as against 46%). This result could be influenced by general neglect of responsibilities, as well as by a feeling of failure in studies and thus by a reluctance to answer particular questions on part of poor students. An overall analysis of data proved that a lack of answer may be a result of one of the following circumstances: (1) a respondent may miss a question; (2) he may believe that the lack of answer is informative enough, e.g., by clearly indicating that the question „does not apply“ to him; (3) he may intentionally refrain from answering to a question. Such refusal to answer may have various causes: (a) the respondent may fail to understand the question; (b) he may cherish no opinion or lack any knowledge on the subject asked about; (c) he may be unable to formulate his opinion or to communicate what he knows; (d) he may be reluctant to reveal his opinion or his knowledge. Methodological analyses suggest that a fact of withholding of an answer by a respondent should be considered as an indication of his attitudes both towards the research problem and towards the research situation. The second problem discussed in the paper is that of the usefulness of group interview as an auxiliary procedure supplementing a questionnaire. The group interview was performed by three research workers with 8 students considered as in a certain sense representative for the students who had answered the questionnaire. The interview took more than three, hours of time. 120 utterances of the interviewed were recorded. The aims of the interview were threefold: (1) to establish common opinions on some problems dealt with in the questionnaire; (2) to establish the meanings of some terms that appeared in answers to questionnaire items as characteristic for the studied group; (3) to establish the respondents’ attitudes towards the situation of the questionnaire survey. The group interview assumed a form of a discussion on those problems. It supplied material that helped to interpret the results related to the problem of lacks of answers in the questionnaire.

The first part of the paper presents an attempt at a classification of data collecting techniques in social research. The basic dichotomy introduces a distinction between techniques involving communication of a researcher (or his authorized agent) with respondents whose responses contain the data sought for, and those involving mere observation. Another dichotomy has been made within the techniques based upon reciprocal communication, as it can be either direct or indirect. The third distinction, cross-cutting the other two, is that between standardized and non-standardized techniques. In the standardized ones both the kinds of data and the ways of securing them are strictly defined in schedules of various types, e. g., in questionnaire forms. The proposed distinctions result from an analysis of the process of reciprocal communication and of the concept of standardization. The classification based on them may be presented in the following table: Techniques based on observation Techniques based on reciprocal communication direct indirect Non-standardized techniques Uncontrolled observation techniques Free interview techniques Methods of securing non-standardized written materials (such as personal documents delivered by contests participants etc.) Standardized techniques Controlled observation techniques Interview with a questionnaire Questionnaires filled in by respondents The proposed classification does not cover other possible lines of division, as e.g. between projective and non-projective techniques. Besides, a category of mixed techniques must be admitted, too, such as techniques of focused interview and of participant observation, involving in general both observation proper and conversations. Comparisons are made in the paper with other classifications, e. g., by G. Lundberg, K. Dobrowolski, and others. In the second part of the paper the notion of questionnaire filled in by respondents and its place among other data collecting techniques is discussed. Subsequently there is presented an analysis of the several kinds of questionnaires, as an researcher’s message may be either submitted in writing or not, and as the process of responding may either be controlled by a researcher (questionnaires filled in under supervision), or not (as is the case with self-administered or mail questionnaires). Both methodological and technical import of those distinctions leading to the fourfold classification has been set forth. In the concluding remarks it is emphasized that rules of conduct entailed by data collecting techniques in social research are in general not based on any theories of the processes that are essential for them. It is particularly clear in case of the process of reciprocal communication. Theoretical inquiry into its varieties carried on by different branches of science should constitute the starting point for formulating the rules of research conduct as characteristic for the various techniques of data collecting.

The present paper is devoted to the problems of diminishing of farmland resources as a result of industrial and urban processes. The size and tendencies in the range of diminishing of cultivated area and arable land in Poland in the years 1960 - 1970 have been shown. The problem of lessening of farmland resources as a result of the expansion of industry, building and transport in the south-eastern part of Poland, that is in the districts of Katowice, Kraków, Lublin and Rzeszów, has been presented in detail. In the present paper an argument was presented that a large area of farmland has been excluded from agricultural production as a result of inrational land administration. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The paper dels with an approximate description of the deformable body within the known assumptions of the continuous media theory and using the additional assertion that the body under consideration has only finite or countable number of degrees of freedom. Such body is said to be a discretized body. Starting from the general scheme of discretization of continuous media we arrive at the concept of discretized body and then we obtain the equations of motion and the constitutive equations of such a body. The characteristic feature of the equations obtained is their simple and general form and their formal resemblance to the known equations of the continuous media theory. At the end of the paper the problem of applications of the mechanics of discretized bodies is also widely discussed.

The paper, the second part of a large work, presents an application of computing techniques to managing and controlling the process of machine industry development. A mathematical model of the economics of industry has been designed which makes it possible to trace out the consequences of various feasible decisions taken up for managing and developing the branch of industry. It is the feed-back-type model assuming close collaboration between "man and computer". The method of computing the rate of production and the productivity as well as productivity requirements have been described in this paper. It concerns a period of three successive years in several sections of accuracy for lm variations. The pattern of the tables have been carried out in the form of multidimensional matrices which are linked by applying the rules of matrix element calculus. The results of computing i. e. the requirements of the productivity increase, are balanced with the supply possibilities of the requirements concerned. The balancing will be presented in the third part of the work to be published in the next issue of this journal. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

In many sociological books and in instructions for interviewers a directive can be found telling the interviewer to interview only the respondent himself. The presence of any third persons is considered to have negative influence on the respondents’ replies. The author has carried out research into the problem of third persons’ presence and the influence they may have on the respondents’ replies. The materials were collected with the help of questionnaires which were filled in immediately after every interview. The questionnaires were attached to 9 research programmes carried out by various research centres in various milieus all over Poland 8073 questionnaires were filled in. The paper consists of two basic parts. In the first part the author presents various social situations in which respondents in the presence of third persons were interviewed. Analyses have proved that the percentage of interviews in which third persons took part is very high, it ranges from 27,4% to 63,7%, and it depends on the study itself, the total percentage amounts to 46,1. Third persons not only accompany the respondents, but also take part in their conversations and interfere with their replies. The percentage of interviews in which third persons did speak is – generally speaking – high and reaches 56,3%. The presence of third persons during interviews and their participation in conversation depend on: 1. social and local conditions in which the research is carried out; 2. some demographic features of the respondents (sex, education, age etc.); 3. the relationship between the respondents and the persons who accompany them (wife, husband, various members of the family, or persons who do not belong to the family – friend s, neighbours etc.); 4. circumstances of the interview (e.g. place of the interview). Among other things it was stated that third persons more frequently accompany the inhabitants of villages and small towns and less frequently the inhabitants of big towns and university graduates. It was also stated that third persons’ participation in the conversation depends on the contents of the question and the problem included in it. The other part of the paper deals with the influence exercised by third persons on the respondents’ replies. In order to determine the influence replies to some questions in the questionnaires for interviewers in the presence of third persons were compared with those interviews during which no other persons were present. The following general conclusions may be formulated: The influence of third persons – generally speaking – is not strong. Differences between the percentage of replies of a definite kind given in the presence of third persons and those given without their presence amounts to 6 percentage points. But when influence is not considered as a general problem but attention is paid to the fact whether the persons and the respondents are close relations or not and how the third persons behave differences reach as many as 20 percentage points. Since the problem refers to definite categories of third persons, the differences do not concern many groups under investigation. The influence of third persons was very clear in questions which referred to those persons themselves or included values they themselves accepted. The influence was not always deforming – in some categories of questions – replies given in the presence of third persons may be looked upon as more reliable. In the final part of the paper it was emphasized that: 1. The presence of third persons during interviews in Poland cannot be avoided. 2. Although, on the whole, the influence of third persons on the respondents' replies is not very strong, every sociologist must take in, into account. He should know in which interviews third persons took part and who they were so as to be able to correct the obtained results or at least indicate the direction of possible deviations.

The calculation of the optimalization of the exploitation of the productive ability can not be limited only to the determination of the total size of the reserves that appear in the examined element of production. For the size of these reserves is influenced by different factors and the accepted qualification of productive ability. In the paper it was accepted that the productive ability expresses the maximization of production taking into account optimum and not maximum of the conditions of production. The ability calculated on such a basis establishes a model based on real but not in every case workable factors in the realization. These factors are differentiated with appropriateness to the object for which the examination is done. The strength of action of individual factors and the possibility of quantifying and liquidating them are variable. Assuming what has been said about the notions and factors the reserves of productive ability do not have a homogeneous character. In the paper there were individualized some criteria of the classification of reserves. These criteria were connected with: — dynamic character of the productive ability calculated of the basis of optimal use of all the factors determining it in a unit of time; — two basic elements of the model of calculation of the productive ability namely the technical standard of the efficiency of work and the effective time of work; — suitableness of the prevalence of reserves; — analysing the use of productive ability at the level: productive ability — planned production — executed production. The criteria mentioned above allow to make acquaintance of the structure of reserves and they should have a great influence on better knowledge of the essence of ability and reserves of production and on the effectiveness of the economic enterprises. Especially they ought to make easier the planning and the realization of the organizational and technical enterprises directed towards rational delivering the reserves and stimulating the production. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

Raw materials used for energy production have one thing in common Their deposits are dispersed from a territorial point of view and their size quamtitively limited. In most cases the centers of production are far from the centers of consumption. This is particularly true in the case of crude oil, hence the great importance attached to the transport problem. Before reaching its point of destination, oil has to be transported over vast land and sea distances. The paper begins with a short historical review of successive phases in oil transportation in conjunction with its intensity' and capacity as well as the changing directions. ! The authors then analyse the different means, and their economic aspect of oil transportation, first by land (train, cars, river barges and pipelines) and next by sea (tankers and pipelines also). The paper also discusses the future perspectives concerning the problem of oil transportation. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The paper presents an exemplary scheme of the uniform program of ASTA statistical analysis. It may be applied in the investigation of productive processes steered by means of modern computers. The paper deals with basic terms and describes such aspects as: 1. the productive process, 2. information, 3. the scheme of control and steering, 4. the description of continuous and impulsive systems, 5. the structure of the theoretical model, 6. the analysis of structural features, 7. economic data, 8. the program of statistical analysis. The last paragraph of the paper includes the scheme (with a diagram and description) of the ASTA universal program embracing a wide range of problems connected with the steering and control of productive processes. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The article deals with wood supplies in Poland, wood and cellulose paper production, and foreign turnover for these articles. On data from 1949 -1967 the equation was calculated for production trends, foreign turnover and wood consumption as well as end products of wood and cellulose paper. These calculations were used in prognosis of potential consumption of these articles and the possibility of it being covered by domestic production. From the results it is possible to forsee that in 1975 the deficit in wood in Poland will amount to 1,3 mln. m8 and in 1980 — 1,8 mln. m3 wood stock. This deficit can be considerably reduced by better utilization of wood stocks, by substituting wood by other products e. g. in packing and above all by economizing in the use of wood. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

In the paper the author presents selected results of analyses referring to the methods of first contacts with respondents and that behaviour of interviewers which defines their social role during the interview. At the same time it is a collection of certain practical experiences which show the difficulties a sociologist may come across whole he is carrying his research in a small local community. The study was carried out in 1966 in a town of a small administrative district with 3500 inhabitants. 300 persons aged 18-65 years were interviewed. It was a quota sample with four control variables: sex, age, education and profession. The interviews were made by sociology students from the University of Łódź who were going through their obligatory training period in field study. The paper is based on the interviewers’ reports concerning individual interviews. The reports were written according to precisely formulated instructions containing basic categories of descriptions. The author has paid particular attention to two problems: The first problem deals with the selection of respondents and coming into contact with them during quota sampling by interviewers who are not acquainted with the members of the community in question. What should be done to avoid addressing persons who do not comply with the requirements of the instruction? In the paper four methods used in the study are shown. 1. The interviewers did not turn to persons met by chance but to heads of selected households and they learnt from them whether in their families there were persons who complied with the requirements of the instruction (51,7°/o of interviews). 2. Respondents, who were being interviewed, indicated future respondents and helped to come into contact with them – this is a new version of “the chain method” sometimes applied in ethnographical research (25,0% interviews). 3. Help of, regular informants who could supply necessary information about potential respondents (11,9% of interviews). 4. The use of official data dealing with a few narrow socio-professional (occupational) categories (11,4% of interviews). Efforts were made to find out whether some of the applied methods did not result in a special selection of respondents. It was stated that, when compared with other respondents, those obtained by means of “the chain method” gave longer and fuller answers to several questions in the questionnaire. It is probable that persons who directed interviewers to those respondents informed the latter about the interview which was to take place and its contents. Significant differences in replies indicate, that this method of obtaining respondents should be avoided. The other problem discussed in the paper refers to the standardization of the social role in which interviewers will address the respondents. Before the study was begun it was decided that the interviewers would introduce themselves as students going through the period of their field study practice. They were to ask the respondents to do them the favour and help to fulfill the duties imposed on the students by university authorities. In the recommended version of the initial talk there were many phrases and idioms which emphasized the “private” character of the research situation. It appeared, however, that in some interviews the interviewers did not closely follow the instructions addressing the respondents in a more official role exposing the official relations more than the personal ones. It happened mostly in those cases when the unofficial role brought about a slightly negligent attitude in the respondents. When replies received from that group of respondents were compared with other replies, the former showed considerable differences in contents which must be taken into account when the material is analysed.

After the price reduction system had been adhered to in our country for several years, some shortcomings of the organization and the scheme of the price reduction as well as of the bargain sales became obvious. There are some doubts about the justification of creating funds for price reduction and commercial risks. Repricing does not take place only in Poland. Other countries also apply various systems of building up reserves to finance the effects of reduced prices as well as various mean of stimulating demand. The aim of this paper is to consider how to take advantage of the wide experience of the trade abroad to increase the effectiveness of the Polish repricing system. The first part of the paper deals with principles of price reduction in the socialist countries where in spite of similar forms of governing the repricing systems differ considerably. Principles of creating and using the repricing funds in Poland, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Bulgaria, Rumania and Czechoslovakia are presented in that part. In order to give a picture how repricing is carried out in different market conditions the experiences of the Jugoslavian and Swedish trade are shown. In the second part of the paper an analysis is made, aiming at an improvement of the Polish system of price reduction and taking into account foreign solutions. The application of some of them might rise the efficiency of our price reductions and ensure better economic effects of our commercial enterprises. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The paper, the second part of a large work, presents an application of computing techniques to managing and controlling the process of machine industry development. A mathematical model of the economics of industry has been designed which makes possible to trace out the consequences of various feasible decisions adopted for making and developing the branch of industry. It is the feed-back-type model assuming close collaboration between "man and computer". The methods of computing the rate of production and the productivity as well as productivity requirements have been described in this paper. It concerns a period of three successive years in several sections of accuracy for 1 m variations. The pattern of the tables has been carried out in the form of multidimensional matrixes which are linked by applying the rules of matrix element calculus. The results of computing i.e. the requirements of the productivity increase are balanced with the supply possibilities of the requirements concerned. The balancing will be presented in the third part of the work to be published in the next issue of this journal. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The paper gives W. Lenin's views upon the correlation of productive forces and production relations and the policy of the state. It consists of two part's. In the first one the role of economics in policy has been discussed. The problem has been handled in a historical approach. The works of W. Lenin on the capitalistic economy and the socialistic economy have been a starting point for a survey of the problem. After considering the subject, the authors of this paper came to the following conclusions: a) policy is a reflection of economics, b) policy represents basic economic class interests, c) policy generalizes economic phenomena and processes, which are reflected in the acts of the state and in the activities of social and political associations. The second part of this paper is concerned with the role of policy in relation to economics. An analysis of views proves that W. Lenin has formulated a principle that the rank of policy is higher than the rank of economics. One may state that although economics plays a decisive role in relation to policy, the latter is comparatively independent and plays an active role in relation to economics. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The present article is a comparative analysis of results of two research works on the popularity of „Głos Szczeciński“ (The Voice of Szczecin) daily paper. One of them was based on questionnaires attached to the paper and returned by riders by mail, and the other on interviews with questionnaires with residents of Szczecin selected at random. The questions put in the two questionnaires were the same: they concerned, among other items, bow often paper was bought, opinions as regards the paper, and preferences as regards various columns and articles. Afterwards, the results obtained in the two investigations were compared in order to ascertain the differences in answers to particular questions and thus to verify following hypotheses; among there who answered the questionnaire a) men, b) people of good education, c) long-established residents of Szczecin, d) the middle-aged, e) regular readers, f) members of political parties, g) individuals with clearly established opinions as regards the content of the daily – will be over-represented. The comparative analysis did indeed confirm most of these hypotheses. No tendentiousness in answering the questionnaire was established as arising from age structure and- the duration of residence in Szczecin. The structure of bias indicated above is explained by the mechanism of the shaping of such phenomena. They are a result of the cumulative effect of objective and -situational factors (the more often the reader purchases the particular daily, the more likely is he to come across the questionnaire), and factors of autoselection (readers having certain social and demographic characteristics who come in contact with the questionnaire are more willing to complete and mail it); the correlation between, the frequency rot reading (or buying) the daily, and similar features account for the very marked over-representation among those who answered the questionnaire, of party, members, men, and people having a higher standard of education. On the basis of a series of similar investigations concerning the direction and range of bias in self-returning questionnaires, it has been possible to establish, a coefficient of tendentiousness in relation, to each of the questions according to the formula: [SEE summary_Gostkowski.pdf] where a = the percentage of answers to the questionnaire, p = the percentage of answers obtained in interviews with the representative sample of readers. Knowing the coefficient Wa, it is possible – on the basis of data from the questionnaire – to establish the percentage of answers to be found in the representative research according to the following formula: [SEE summary_Gostkowski.pdf]

The paper describes the interviewing methods in sample survey. The main topic deals with the analysis of the interviewers’ behaviour in selecting respondents in the light of theoretical principles and methodological directives. Methods of respondents’ selection in quota sampling and rules of interviewing have been worked out and tested in the western countries and in the USA in particular. One of the basic rules assumes that the interviewer is introduced to the respondent only in the role of a representative of a Research Institute. These rules have been accepted by Polish sociologists. It is important to know whether and to what extent methods worked out in different social and cultural conditions give satisfactory results also in Polish conditions. Polish Radio and Television Centre for Public Opinion Research and Programme Evaluation in Warsaw has a net of voluntary interviewers who select respondents (by means of quota sampling) in their own localities. Methodological instructions for the Centre interviewers are based on „imported” patterns to a certain extent adapted to polish conditions. Among other things the principle that the interviewer can only appear as a research worker is not strictly obeyed while interviews with the family and close acquaintances are not recommended. Methodological research carried out among the interviewers of the Polish Radio and Television Centre for Public Opinion Research and Programme Evaluation, whose results are presented in the paper, has shown that for interviewers acting in their own localities the condition of mutual anonymity between respondent and interviewer is very difficult to be observed. The typology of contacts between interviewers and respondents has proved that the principle of anonymity is observed by less than a half of the interviewers and it happens mostly in bigger towns. Interviewers carrying out research in villages and small towns have a small chance to preserve their incognito usually being well known by the people from their own milieu. It was also stated that about 20 per cent of the interviewers consciously select acquaintances as their respondents. When cases in which people refused their permission to be interviewed were analysed, it appeared that the conditions in which the interviewers of the Polish Radio and Television Centre work complete anonymity causes more difficulties in the research process and more frequent refusals than in those cases when the contacts between interviewers and respondents take place with their roles being well defined. From the above considerations there follows the conclusion that methodological principles in the organization of research by means of mass interviews should be adapted to the existing social conditions and circumstances in which the research takes place.

In the first part or his article the author directs our attention to the divergences in the views and standards of appreciating the role of agriculture in the national economy. Three standards are analized in the paper, the share of agriculture in the national income, percentage of population employed in agriculture and share of food articles in the family budget. The author maintains that the most important standard from the market balance point of view is the share of food articles in the family budget. Then the author discusses the problems of production cost, real incomes and work efficiency of agricultural workers and he comes to the conclusion that the increase in production cost resulting from influx of industrial means of production to agriculture may be prevented by reflux of rural population to other professions which should be followed by the process of concentrating of the means of production in all sectors of agriculture. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The Atlantic Container Line, being a maritime carrier of goods, introduced a new transportation document, which needs some explanations and a juridical analysis. The new document consists of two seperate documents: in the port of loading the shipper of the goods receives a freight receipt, in which all particulars concerning the goods and its transport are duly given. The shipper has a choice: instead of such a freight receipt he may ask for a normal bill of lading. But the conditions of carriage are the same both according to the freight receipt as well as according to the bill of lading. There is only one major difference: the bill of lading may be delivered to the order of the shipper or to the bill of lading holder, whereas the freight receipt must bear the exact name of the consignee. In consequence the freight receipt is not a document which entitles its holder to dispose of the cargo. The freight receipt is delivered to the shipper and remains in his hands. The freight receipt is being drawn up by the carrier or his agent in the port of loading on a telex apparatus, which has a connection with the carrier's agent apparatus at the port of discharge. There, at the same time, a „notice of arrival" is being written by the telex receiver apparatus. This notice of arrival (of the cargo) is being delivered to the consignee, who with that document in hand may take delivery of the cargo. The whole terminology is a new one. Maritime law does not know a freight receipt (it knows merely a mate's receipt which has other functions) nor a notice of arrival of the cargo in form of a document of title. And therefore the legal status of these two documents, considered together as one document of transport, must be found. According to Polish civil law the two mentioned documents together may be identified with a freight bill, a document which is being met with in other branches of the transportation industry. The prefix „telex" should denote that the document is not transferred in its material form (as a piece of paper) but on„wires" with the aid of electronic apparatus. At the port of discharge the document is being drawn up once more. This facilitates enormously maritime trade if and when a bill of lading is not needed. And a bill of lading is not needed when the partners of the selling contract are in constant contact and have a full confidence that the contract will be fulfilled in the agreed manner and time. Such a situation may be found in relations between enterprises of socialist countries. Therefore the maritime telex freight bills could be successfully used in these countries. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The collapse of the world economy in the thirties was especially felt in Poland. In that situation the state had to undertake some efforts in order to lighten the course of events as well as to precipitate the end of crisis. These efforts were also directed towards the possibly rapid reconstruction of the devastations in Polish economy caused by that crisis. The intervention measures of the Polish government embraced the whole variety of steps which were undertaken in all branches of national economy. The author of this paper comes to the analysis and evaluation of control policy which — apart from the customs policy and the policy of export promotion — constituted in those times the substantial form of state intervention in the field of Polish foreign trade. The control of foreign traffic was reviewed from the point of view of numerous restrictions, import quotas and barter business. After a thorough examination of the process of rapid development of the foreign traffic control in Poland the author points at the double objective of introducing the import quotas. On one hand those above mentioned quotas can be considered as the repercussion and result of autarchic processes developed amongst the Poland's trade partners and increasing difficulties in international trade as well as the result of commonly used foreign exchange restrictions causing the freeze of credit balance from exports. Those import restrictions were introduced in order to weaken the disadvantegeous influence of the above mentioned events on Polish foreign trade and — indirectly — on the whole Poland's economy. On the other hand the control policy was also facilitating the inland's economic and financial policy. In the years 1929 - 1935 the system of quotas highly contributed to the achievement of favourable balance of foreign trade and international payments; in the next years that system constituted one of the most significant factors realization of foreign exchange control. In addition, in the whole period being the subject of the present analysis, the compensatory turnover greatly facilitated the realization of policy of export promotion. The mentioned motives of using the control policy caused the seizure of almost full control of foreign trade by state. In this article the author evaluates the control policy on the basis of the demonstrated uniformity of that policy with the general, economic policy of the state. As the deflation policy of the crisis years is evaluated rather negatively the same appraisal can be adopted to the control policy in foreign trade. However the investment policy of the after-crisis years of economic growth is appreciated as the only justified policy within the framework of contemporary political system and therefore also the control policy should be positively appreciated. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The problem of restitutional investment in the theoretical and methodological respect has not been fully elaborated till now. It has also not been treated respectively in the works of planning despite considerable repercussion of this fact. A common inventarization of permanent assets carried out in Poland in the years 1945—1961 supplied statistic material which helped to learn the magnitude of exploitation and the age of the permanent assets and as a result of it the need of their restoration. The purpose of this article is to show and to give the reasons, in the light of the shown materials, for the necessity of raising the institutional investments to a suitable level in the theoretical works, and in the economic practice of all stages and levels of planning. This is indicated by the degree of exploitation of industrial permanent assets which is 41%, despite the fact that it does not take into account part of the economic consumption. The consumption is formed exceptionally high in the traditional branches of Polish industry, particularly machines and facilities in regional cross section on the territory of western voivodeships and industrial districts. The low coefficient of liquidation of consumed permanent assets 1,2% which approximately reflects the rate of exchange does not help to improve the situation. The deterioration of the technical-economical index within the progress of consumption, the expected great increase of consumption especially economical and comparatively high effectiveness of restitutional investments stands for a change of investment policy towards a distinct increase of restitutional investments. The second part of this paper shows the proposed method of estimating the size of restitutional expenditure and conditions on which the possibility of its use depends. This method results in defining the size of permanent assets qualified for liquidation at a given period of time. The following are indispensable: — to learn the age of permanent assets. The data in this range illustrating additionally the scale of obsolete of a big part of the industrial capital ass'ets have been constructed as a result of common inventarization. This together with the yearly evidence of movements of capital assets makes possible the publication of information of this range in all necessary sections, — to define the correct (from the point of view of progress of complete consumption) and at the same time the realistic (in the light of changes in building and ability of industrial production and import) periods of exploitation of capital assets. Apart from establishing factual possibilities of exchange, it is necessary to define them from the financial point, i.e. — assigning — within the frame of global investment expenditure, — permissible range of restitutional investments from the point of view of increased needs, and to assign such trends of investment policy which could combine the interest of a simple and broadened reproduction, — to introduce changes into the previous system of financing the restitutional investments towards ensuring a required part of the amortization fund to cover the restitutional needs combined with modernization within the limits which the economic bill will assign for the purpose of these investments. Undertaking effords to elaborate the programming system and planning of the restitutional investments seems to be purposeful not only from the point of view of the investment processes but also in the broader aspect of programming and planning. The determination of the restitutional demand however will supply additional premise to settle the correct production tasks of these disciplines of economy, which will realize the program of restitution of the capital assets of industry. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

Building large ships is one of the basic trends in the world shipbuilding industry and Polish shipbuilding industry must link in the general current. However, the carrying out of the projects entails heavy investments to build up maritime infrastructure, to dredge canals, far waters, ports and harbour basins and to build dry docks. The author of this paper presents a method of investigating economic effectiveness of a dry dock. He states that the present instructions covering this field are maladjusted to such an Object as a dry dock. He puts forward his own method in which he takes into account productive capacities of a shipyard as a whole and the length of production cycles for vessels built in a dry dock. Having made the analysis he is able to point out the reasons for the underutilization of a dry dock and the possibilities of improving the results. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The first part of the paper contains the general data which characterize Scandanavian agriculture. These data are compared to those of the greatest agricultural producer of EEC — France. The second part discusses the basic problems of Danish export of agricultural articles to the markets of the remaining Scandanavian countries and to the market of EEC. The third part contains a characteristic of the agricultural policy of the governments of the remaining Scandanavian countries. The fourth part devotes more space to Scandanavian commercial exchange of agricultural articles. The author emphasizes the causes hindering such an exchange and discusses a way out of the present difficulty. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

In the paper there are represented some indices of the changes of the living standard of people, who live as well in the town as in the country. The basical indices were worked out mainly in reference to the years 1950 -1967, only in some cases there were shown the general tendencies that took place in the scope of income and consumption in the last 50 years. A steady base of the growth of income of people as well direct as indirect Was the increase of the national income that in the course of the last 50 years multiplied 37 times. In the consequence the real income of workers, who worked in the industry and building increased 5 times per 1 worker and the real income of people increased above 9 times. The growth of real people's income was done mainly in 3 ways, namely as the result of the successive reduction of pricess for some goods of common comsumption, by the increase of workers wages and the steady enlarging of the social services from the social funds of consumption. In the result of the increase of real income there was changed not only the amount of consumption but also the structure of the consumption of the Soviet people. In the scope of consumption of food there increased especially the consumption of meat, fish, fish products, milk, diary products, eggs and vegetables. The tendency of improving the quality of the eaten products was very distinct especially in the last 17 years. In the examined period of time (1950 -1967) there increased many times shopping of the articles of culture-existential goods. A big dynamics was shown in buying television sets, radio sets, furniture, bicycles, motorcycles, scooters, refrigerators, electric cleaners, polish machines, sewing machines, and all kinds of tricots, clothes and shoes., A big influence on the improving of living conditions and on the structure of people's expenses had in the last years an immense development of the residential building. In the result of big progress in the residential building in the last 12 years almost 160 millions of Soviet citizens improved their living conditions. The people of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics increased their savings with every year. In 1967 the whole amount of the reached 27 milliards roubles. These savings have been saved mainly for buying private cars and furniture Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

This paper presents the opinions of economists — especially Polish — of socialist countries concerning the directions and methods of economic growth in underdeveloped countries. The author mentions a number of policy problems (methodological, theoretical and economic) which are essential to the formulation of the theory of general growth of underdeveloped countries. The questions under consideration are as follows: 1) the role of the State and public sector and the significance of economic planning in the growth of underdeveloped countries; 2) the specific character of „mixed economy" and its laws of development, particularly with regard to Kalecki's and Lange's models; 3) the problem of employment and the choice of proper production techniques both in over and under populated countries; 4) the models of agricultural and industrialization policies. The author tries to show that achievements in economic science are in this field considerable and that they represent a complete and consistent system of views. The works of marxist authors contain both empirical and statistical studies and the attempts at theoretical generalization which have been constantly confronted with the existing economic practice of the third world countries. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The author of the paper discusses differences and relationship between money market and capital market, partial markets within money and capital markets; he also characterizes the agglomeration of buyers and sellers as well as interest rates settling in the credit market. The autor concludes, that the modern money and capital markets represent one of the instruments of allocation of money resources as well as of mobilization of savings for economic growth. At present the national credit markets are strongly connected with those abroad thait there is little possibility for a self-governing conjuncture or credit policy. The analysis of modern credit markets enables us to understand the financing mechanism of economic growth processes in the present capitalism. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The paper deals with the different interpretations of the notion of national income and the interrelations between national income and value-added and net product. The manifold interpretations concerning the national income are due to the fact that it manifests itself in three spheres of the national economy: production, income, distribution and consumption sphere. The different interpretations can also be explained by the fact that it manifests itself in two categories: gross and net. With the notion of national income is closely related the aggregate known as the global social product. That aggregate is also to be found in two forms: gross and net. The difference in the various nations of national income is due to two elements strictly related with the process of social production, i, e. 1. the amortization as a financial expression of the wear and tear and reproduction of material wealth, 2. the amount of turnover means, constituting the material costs of social production. The manifold interpretations related to the national income are also related to the structure of the global social product, i. e. to its two material components — the intermediate product and the final product. The interrelations among the various versions of national income, value-added, net production have been presented by the author in formulae of an equational character. The author dwells also amply on the various methods of evaluating the aggregates, linked with the national income. The differences in said methods are due to: a) the role ascribed to indirect taxes and especially to turnover tax and b) the rôle ascribed to non productive services. The economic character of non productive services has been analyzed — the said services being classified into 5 groups. The analysis of those services has been formalized by means of accounting model. The influence of nonproductive services on the social welfare has been ampiy dealt with. In that respect, the author is of the opinion that the nonproductive services help to augment the social production forces'. Consequently, they ought to be taken into consideration when assessing the size of the national income. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

We speak about the autonomy of national councils if and when they are entitled to undertake economic, social and cultural activities in a defined framework, have at their disposal a range of social, cultural and municipal facilites and are provided with indispensable financial and material means. The regional budgets do not draw any distinctions between the means allocated to the financing of tasks undertaken relatively autonomically by the regional authorities themselves and the means allocated for carrying out activites commissioned to the national councils by the central authorites. For that reason precisely the problem of financial autonomy of national councils is strictly related with these two spheres of their activities. The practice up to now restricted the said problem mainly to the revenue side of the regional budgets. The financial system of national councils comprises: the financial economy of regional and municipal enterprises (the paper does not dwell on that subject), the budget economy — consisting of the plannig and carrying out of the national councils' tasks, the problems of regional revenues and the non budgetary economy, in which the most important role is played by the management of the purpose- - defined funds of the national councils. To the competency of local authorities belong generally such tasks which are related with satisfying the normal social needs. The same kinds of facilites can, however, be subordinated partially to the central authorities and partially to the national councils of different levels. The endeavors to put one kind of facilities under the exlusive competency of either the central authorities or the national councils — would not be realistic. It does not also seem advisable to restrict the financial links of regional enterprises only to the budget of the national council to which they are subordinated as has been practised up to now. The competency of the national councils are defined by central authorities in following framework: 1)prices and fees, 2) principles regulating the division of income in the socialized enterprises and principles governing the tax policy in regards to the non-socialized economy and in regards to earned incomes, 3) the normatives of the social-cultural, educational, communal and dwelling facilities and 4) indices of financial means. The activity of the local authorities is limited at last but not least by the structure and size of the budgetary incomes of the national councils. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

In the paper the economic analysis ins defined, its purpose and importance, are explained and the terminology applied is made clear. With help of that terminology the systems of analysis used at present by commercial enterprises are reviewed with particular attention paid to enterprises operating in tourist regions. Conditions of commercial activities in tourist regions are discussed and instability of demand is stressed. The critique deals with the following groups of problems: — institutional, — methodological, — organizational. As far as the institutional problems are concerning the dependence of the technique of analysis on the system of planning applied in commerce and in its management is discussed. Increased selfdependence and responsibility of commerce as well as execution of the analysis to meet first of all the interior demand of the enterprise are postulated. A critique of the rigid planning indexes is carried out. The scarcity of methods of analysis is stressed and particularly, the lack of studies on correlations, seasonal variations and development trends as well as of dynamic approach. In the analysis procedure tabular, graphic and descriptive parts are distinguished and propositions are presented concerning their contents and mutual proportions. The organizational aspects concern the person being in charge of the analysis; proportions between the individual parts and the volume of the materials are proposed. The lack of imtershop amd interenterpirdse analysas is stressed. The general conclusion drawn is as follows: the institutional, methodological and organizational problems are closely related with each other and result form each other. No positive change can be expected without a careful complex approach. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The basic source of material for this paper constitute the statistical data published by the Central Statistical Office of Bulgaria functioning at the Ministers' Council. The study of the death tables covering various observations periods between 1920 and 1962, has shown that the average life duration of men was always shorter than the life duration of women. Using an indice expressing the relation of men's death rate coefficient with that of women's coefficient it can be seen that in different periods from 1920 up to 1939 and for the age of 5 to 45 years — the said indice is almost always below the size of one, and for the age of 45 to 85 years — above one. On the other hand in the observation periods from 1946 up to 1956 the above mentioned indice is above the size of one in every age group. Today it can be already said, that in the interwar periods of observation an important influence on the size of the indice had the high death risk of women in their fertility age. After the II world war, on the other hand, great influence on the shape of the indice had death cases caused by fatal accidents. In the towns the percentages of deaths caused by fatal accidents among men of the age of 5 to 29 years oscillated between 49% and 56%, whereas among women they reached only 29%. In the rural areas the death percentages among men caused by fatal accidents were still higher. In the fifteen-year period from 1947—1962 the percentages of death due to fatal accidents have doubled in all the age groups in the men as well as women folk. There are, however, age groups of men, in which that percentage showed a fivefold increase. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The paper deals with the program of employing, the technique of filled-in questionnaire to analysis of the process of data collecting by means of interviews. It is commonly assumed that interviewing by trained interviewers who use questionnaire forms is a standardized technique of data collecting in the sense that all subjects are exposed to identical stimuli and their reactions (utterances) are registered in identical ways. However, practical experience, as well as methodological studies point out that sets of stimuli to which various subjects are exposed during a research are by no means identical. Two kinds of factors are responsible for this fact: outer circumstances of an interview (e.g. its place, moment, presence of other persons, etc.), and the interviewer’s personal characteristics (such as sex, age, skill, psychological features, beliefs, etc.). In methodological studies on presence and scope of factors disturbing the standardization, of questionnaire interviews, questionnaires addressed to interviewers are employed. In recent years a range of surveys has been performed in Poland. They have been instructive enough to attempt their typology and to suggest some propositions about the possibilities to study the particular disturbing factors impairing the level of standardization of interviews by means of proper types questionnaires addressed to interviewers. The author maintains that such a questionnaire is an important, fruitful and economic procedure. In his opinion, however, it is not worth while to try to design a universal questionnaire investigating all significant aspects of the process of personal interview. The problem offers many aspects and thus it requires the use of various patterns of questionnaires to collect complete and reliable material about each of the groups of questions. Four types of questionnaires are here suggested, each of them offering different cognitive potentialities and justified by considerations concerning costs of a study. 1. A standardized questionnaire, demanding from an interviewer steady observation and reporting of certain circumstances during each of his interviews. (Serving for an analysis of interview situations.) 2. A standardized questionnaire, requiring from an interviewer personal informations about himself, and in particular about his own attitude to actual problems dealt with in interviews carried by him. (For an analysis of interviewers’ effect.) 3. A questionnaire demanding from an interviewer non-standardized descriptions of circumstances of each of his interviews. (For an analysis of interview situations.) 4. A questionnaire demanding from an interviewer a non-standardized description (in form of a personal document) of whole research action as he participated in it, including, reports of both outer circumstances of interviews and of his own conduct, feelings, experiences connected with his research work. (For an analysis of research situations and for control of interviewers’ behavior.)

The subject under consideration is the conception and significance of special drawing rights and the main reason for the introduction of the new international monetary unit. Also indicated is the fundamental difference between the drawing rights and the spacial drawing rights. To meet the need as and when it arises for supplement to existing reserve assets the Fund is authorized to allocate special drawing rights to members that are participants in the Special Drawing Account. The new international unit, commonly known as SDR (Special Drawing Rights) or gold paper was introduced in January 1970. It's parity is 0,88671 g of fine gold, thus equal to the US dollar. It is expressed in dollars but not US dollars. It is issued by the IMF. The grounds for issuing is mutual committance of the participants in the Special Drawing Account, to use the SDR as a means of payment in international settlement of payments. The introduction of SDR constitutes a further step in demonetization of gold, but does not yet mean its full demonetization. SDR is demonetized gold, despite its parity in gold. Here gold plays the role of a yardstick of international measure of values. The introduction of SDR has positive influence on international liquidity thanks to the possibility for supplement to existing reserve assets. Though reducing it does not however, eliminate all the difficulties of those countries which have a long-standing debit balance of payments. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The prices of beef and cattle on the markets of Italy and Western Germany were analyzed in this paper over the period of 1950—1964. This analysis constitutes a basis for determining the prospects of the development up to 1970. The nominal and real prices were taken into consideration. There is a reasonable rising tendency for cattle prices on the Italian market. This market shows a considerable increase of demand for beef. The production has a rising tendency which will be maintained probably over the next years. These reasons and the advancing integration process of the Common Market are limiting to some extent the possibilities of Polish export. However, this export will have a chance to develop under the condition of further improvement of its quality. The rising price tendency has also been observed in Western Germany, but it is much slower than in Italy. The Western Germany's market sets higher requirements, offers lower prices and presents potentially a lower import demand for cattle and beef. However, at the same time this market is less vulnerable to downward price movements. Thus, it may present an aditional outlet for Polish cattle and beef export. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The tendencies discussed in the paper pertain to the consumption resulting from personal incomes during the 25-years' period in the Polish People's Republic. A constant growth of incomes of the population has been found to be accompanied by an increase of the general level of consumption per capita and essential changes have been observed in the structure of consumption this being true as for town as for countryside. The systematic decrease in the consumption of goods of the lower order has been stated to be followed by a constant increase in purchases of the goods that meet the demands of the higher order. This increase has appeared so significant that in spite of the quantitative as well as of the qualitative development on the diet pattern the contribution of means spent on food to the total expenditure has been stated to decrease systematically. A continued increase in consumption and rapid changes of its structure in farmers' families have resulted in a marked tendency to diminishing differences between the town and countryside consumption patterns. Contrary to the pre-war period during which these differences were very deep almost full equlization has been obtained as far as the food consumption is concerned, a fairly good resemblance being achieved in the purchase pattern of clothes, footwear, underclothing and the differences have been considerably reduced concerning expenses on personal hygiene, health protection, culture and education. A decrease in differences has been also observed as far as the household equipment is concerned, such as furniture, televisors, radio sets, washing machines, sewing machines, vacuum cleaners and other house utensils as well. As regards the consumption of foods the following tendencies have been observed: democratization of consumption as shown by the decrease in differences of the diet pattern between different social and professional groups of the population, an increasing contributions of the richer in vitamins and animal proteins, foods of higher quality to the diet pattern, the high rate of increase in the food consumption combined with its constant denaturalization especially in the country. As far as the level of consumption is concerned Poland has approached that of the highly developed countries. The differences that are still being observed especially those concerning the consumption of fish, cheeses, fruits and some vegetables have no structural character and can be eliminated in a relatively short time. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The purpose of the paper is to ascertain what part of the disposable time the vocationally active population devotes to agricultural production, what is the daily burden of that production and finally what kind of relation exists between that burden and the farm area. This information rests on source material obtained on the basis of direct observation in the peasant farms belonging to parents of the students of the Poznań School of Economics or else in the farms well known to the students. These observations were undertaken during 5 weeks in 1963, i. e. in the last week of February and in the first weeks of May, August, October and December. The farming persons and the permanently helping family members were included to the vocationally active persons. Among the latter group — a different treatment got the landladies. The whole disposable time of the vocationally active people was divided as follows: time devoted to agricultural production, to the household, to earning activities of non-agricultural character and finally to personal requirements. The people who devote most of their time to agricultural production are the farming persons, whereas the occasionally helping family members belong to the category of people spending least time on agricultural work. The time used in agricultural production is usually rising with the growing farm area. In the month of February, in farms up to 2 hectars the farming persons devoted daily to agricultural production 3,9 hours, the permamently helping family members 1,1 hour, in that category the landladies (1,1 hour. On the other hand in the farms of an area of 10—15 hectars, the above mentioned categories of persons devoted respectively 8,8, 3,8 3,5 hours. In the month of August in farms up to 2 hectars the farming persons devoted daily to agricultural production 6,3 hours, the permanently helping family members 5,6 hours, the landladies 5,7 hours. In the same month in the farms of an.area of 10—15 hectars were devoted respectively 12,8, 7,7, 7,9 hours. The coefficients of linear correlation between the time used in agricultural production and the farm area are positive and significant at the level of significance 0,05 for the farming persons, positive for the permanently helping family members, negative or positive but not significant for the landladies. The low level of correlation coefficients is due on the one hand to small samples and on the other hand to the phenomenon of earning money in nonagricultural occupations by some of the family members, then to the different degree of intensity in the plant production and different level of the animal stocks, different degree of mechanization and electrification of the farms. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

In the first part of the paper the author dwells on relations between the policy of foreign trade and the criterion of consumption maximization. Analyzing the consequences for the policy of foreign trade in case the criterion of consumption maximization prevails, the author comes to the conclusion the said criterion cannot constitute a sufficient premise for the rationalization of foreign trade. The structural consumption restrictions (and among them market disproportions) can be looked upon as an alternative of restricting the consumption fund. The planning body can thus consciously fix structural restrictions of market supplies — which the policy of foreign trade should strictly respect. It is only after taking into consideration — besides the criterion of consumption maximization — additional circumstances, such as the social costs sustained in conjunction with the disparity between the supply structure with the demand structure and the tendency of natural elimination of restrictions by the population itself (by means of individual contacts with foreign markets), that the author comes to the conclusion, that the market disproportions are irrational phenomena and as such, should be liquidated. The policy of foreign trade should be subordinated to that particular aim — as it still has at its disposal many ways and means of correcting the supply structure of market commodities. Consequently, the author proposes: — to treat the actual market prices as parameters for undertaking decisions in the field of current policy of foreign trade, — to take into consideration the disparity i market price relations in the Comecon countries. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The decision making with respect to an economic region requires a full knowledge of its labour potential resources. Hence the subject of this paper are the methods and some fragments of the results obtained in the process of evaluating the regional labour force resources with a simultaneous attempt to show and prove the possibility of using — in estimating them — the multicorrelation method, known in statistics (with a tacit assumption of a linear succession of resources in the long run). At the beginning the authors have given the definitions of potential and real labour force resources of a region, what in turn proved to be helpful in formulating the remarks concerning the premises on which the method of evaluating the resources is resting. The extrapolation of resources takes into consideration two points of depart: — extrapolation of prevailing tendency in resources, — extrapolation of factors determining the resources and next the computation of the resources themselves. For illustration purposes as well as for bringing into the relief the pecularities in the tendencies of examined resources — numerical examples relating to the whole of Poland and France have been given. In the estimation of the region's labour resources a method of multicorrelation can be used, in which the resources are circumscribed by factors known as essential. The acceptance of such a uniform method in many regions helps to get orientated in the size of labour resources in larger economic bodies. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The authors divide the literature of the subject in three groups: 1: the empirical- analytical papers that represent the phenomena and factors that caused them in relation to the concrete, territorial structure of prices; 2. the literature that deals with problems of the methods of researches of dispersion of prices in space; 3. the literature dealing with the methodology of the regional indexes of prices. In general the methods of examinations of the dispersion of prices in space can be devided in two groups: static and dynamic. Among the static ones we can differentiate 3 important subgroups: cartographic methods, methods based on purposefully choosen characteristic bigness and the method based on the measures of dispersion. Among the methods based on purposefully choosen characteristic bigness, the author numbers: mean local prices, absolute and relative deflections of the local price from the level of the conventionally price accepted as a base and the coefficients of the frequency of changes. Among the methods based on the measures of dispersion the authors individualized these in which are used: the area of the changes of local prices, the standard deflection, the mean coefficient of frequency, relations of the chain factors and the deflection from trend. The dynamic methods are limited by the authors to the characteristic of the regional indexes of prices. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The paper deals with the goods and services consumption paid for from personal income of the peasant population in individual farms of the mid-western region, comprising almost entirely the voivodships of Poznań and Bydgoszcz. The basis of the study constitute the results of agricultural accounting kept by individual peasant farms and the data of the Central Statistical Office. The analysis is based on data comprising the years 1952/58 — 1962/63, with a special stress put on the last few years of said period. In the analysed period there was an increase of personal income per one family member ranging from 4,690 zł. to 10,020 zł. In the same lapse of time the general consumption fund per capita rose from 4,595 zł, to 9,000 zł, that is to say around 96%. Taking, however, into consideration the indexes of retail prices for goods and services, it can be fairly assumed that the real rise in consumption fund was somewhat smaller, and amounted to around 85%. The increase in food consumption was also smaller than the rise in the other elements of the general consumption fund. As a result the percentage share of foodstuffs dropped from 66,5% to 53,8%. The increases in expenditures concerned mainly such items as: linen, furnitures and households ware, hygiene and health, culture, education and other. In the last group a special mention deserves: bicycles, motorcycles and cars. There was a distinct substitution process in foodstuffs consumption — an ever increasing amount of ready made foodstuffs being bought outside the farm. The share of natural consumption (produced in farm) in the general consumption fund dropped from 61% to 37%. There was also a noticeable trend to switch from low calories food items to higher ones. The average daily intake of calories per one person member was high and generally surpassed the amount of 3500 calories. Those tendencies in consumption in individual peasant farms narrowed considerably the consumption habits in towns and in the villages. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

One of the most important difficulties in working out a complex development program for various branches of national economy is the methodological difficulty in finding out the proper optimum variant. In this paper the author undertook an attempt to work out a method of assessing the efficiency of a proposed, development program. The attempt is based on the data relevant to the meat economy. The development of the meat economy rests on the expected growth of processing and commercial activites. The foreseen tasks can be carried out at the existing structure of industry or after some changes in it (concentration). In order to assess the efficiency of the development program of meat economy the author compares: a) two variants of meat processing and of transport (for raw material — meat and ready products), b) two variants of investement inputs, necessary to enlarge the production capacity and to improve the economic efficiency of said inputs. The comparison of these two variants shows the economic advantages in processing costs and investment inputs. The author is of the opinion that a concentration process would contribute to greater savings in production costs and in the costs of shifting the raw-meat surpluses. The investment efficiency at the existing structure and at the newly proposed structure — points to the advantage of the latter one. The concentration of production would also produce some non measurable effects, such as a better raw-material economy, greater possibilities of raising the quality of products and an improvement on the meat market (better supplies). Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

Economic geography begins very often its investigation at identification of expansion and spatial variation of the social and economical phenomena. Using some composing procedures it comes to the determination of regional patterns of some phenomena, but not all regional patterns of economic and social phenomena are equally interesting for economic geography. In farther phase of investigations it pays special attention to convergent patterns i. e. to those ones that seize more or less similar area or change in similar way. Convergence can be accidental or essential. The first case is not very interesting. To prove that the convergence is essential economic geography must show that the regional patterns of the phenomenon is in causal-consecutive connection with regional pattern of the other phenomenon, or that there exists a process (common cause) that has conditioned the convergence of both patterns. Thus, the essential (meaning) convergence occurs when the causal relations accompany the concomitance of various regional patterns. The proof of occurrence is a scientific problem, the solution of which enlarges our knowledge about regions and the way they are made productive. The paper presents a method of mapping regional structure of economy and . proves it on the example of the Konin - Łęczyca - Inowrocław Industrial District. It is an extension of earlier procedure applied to the examination of two regional patterns. The extension made it applicable to the examination of many regional patterns. Thus, we are able at present to map more complex structures of economy in regions. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The problems presented in this paper are those connected with building production function for handicraft, exemplified by the watchmakers' trade. The considered model is the power function of the Coob-Douglas type. Statistical materials for the verification of the model come from a sample survey carried out in handicraft in the year 1969 and have the character of cross section series. A list of explanatory variables was proposed on the grounds of those materials. The choice of optimum combination of variables was made by means of the method suggested by Z. Hellwig. The method consists in estimation of the measures of integral information capacity of the particular combinations of variables. The obtained results helped to state that the constructed models of production function in handicraft will have synthetic and predictive significance. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016

The purpose of the paper is to present differentiated coefficients of death, which relate to two social and vocational groups in the northern regions of Poland in the years of 1950 and 1951 as well as of 1960 and 1961. The comparisons have been done among deceased whose source of livelihood was agriculture and those who made their lives in non-agricultural occupations. To northern regions of Poland the author included: the voivodship of Szczecin, Koszalin, Gdańsk and Olsztyn. As a basis for the calculations served the death registrations in said voivodships in the years of 1950 and 1951 as well as of 1960 and 1961 according to sex, age, source of revenue and the similar data drawn from the census of 1950 and 1960. On a basis of calculated coefficients of death for each of the four voivodships separately, for all four taken together and for the country as a whole — the author puts forward some observations and assertions: 1) In the examined ten year period a substantial decline in death rate in the northern regions can be observed (the same is true to the country as a whole). A particularly sharp decline has taken place among young boys (the 0—4 year group of age) whose parents made their livelihood in non-agricultural occupations. 2) In the year of 1950 the coefficients of death irrespectively of sex, age and source of revenue were among people finding their livelihood in non-agricultural occupations — higher. In 1960 the coefficients among the said group of population were lower than in agriculture (general coefficients and in the age group of 0—4), whereas in the other age groups they were — as before — higher. 3) Among the four voivodships — the voivodship of Gdańsk characterized itself in both periods by the lowest coefficients. 4) The coefficients of any of the four voivodships with regard to age and source of revenue oscillate around the whole country level — what can be looked upon as a symptom of stabilization of the northern regions and of full integration with the former territories of Poland. Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016