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Climate warming in the Arctic has led to warmer and earlier springs, and as a result, many food resources for migratory animals become available earlier in the season, as well as become distributed further northwards. To optimally profit from these resources, migratory animals are expected to arrive earlier in the Arctic, as well as shift their own spatial distributions northwards. Here, we review literature to assess whether Arctic migra-tory birds and mammals already show shifts in migration timing or distribution in response to the warming climate. Distribution shifts were most prominent in marine mammals, as expected from observed northward shifts of their resources. At least for many bird species, the ability to shift distributions is likely constrained by available habitat further north. Shifts in timing have been shown in many species of terrestrial birds and ungulates, as well as for polar bears. Within species, we found strong variation in shifts in timing and distributions between populations. Ou r review thus shows that many migratory animals display shifts in migration timing and spatial distribution in reaction to a warming Arctic. Importantly, we identify large knowledge gaps especially concerning distribution shifts and timing of autumn migration, especially for marine mammals. Our understanding of how migratory animals respond to climate change appears to be mostly limited by the lack of long-term monitoring studies.

The insect growth regulator diflubenzuron (Dimilin®) is used to control locusts and grasshoppers on rangeland and croplands worldwide. Ingestion of diflubenzuron by immature insects results in disruption of chitin formation and deposition that affects the cuticle and the molting process. Symptoms of diflubenzuron intoxication include: death, physical abnormalities (such as loss of limbs), lethargy and cessation of feeding. Field trials with diflubenzuron on grasslands are reported in this paper and support previously published work showing it to be effective in broadcast treatments or alternating swaths and barriers. Affected insects were observed 3 d after application but maximum control of populations occurred by 14 d. Low grasshopper population counts the year after application suggested fewer eggs hatched from adults exposed to diflubenzuron. This bears out results of earlier laboratory and small-scale experiments. Diflubenzuron applications to rangeland did not seriously affect the populatio...

Between 1988 and 1992, 26 strains of Panonychus ulmi (fruit tree red spider mite) were collected from fields in which control failures had been observed with the acaricides clofentezine, hexythiazox or flucycloxuron.

Contact activities of flucycloxuron on immature stages of the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae (Koch)) and the European red mite (Panonychus ulmi (Loch)) gradually decrease in the successive developmental stages. The levels of contact activity of flucycloxuron on larvae and protonymphs of T. urticae and P. ulmi are of the same order. Deutonymphs of T. urticae are less susceptible to contact activity than the similar stage of P. ulmi. In adult T. urticae, the transovarial ovicidal activity was used as an indicator for cuticular penetration. More than 90 % of the maximal penetration into adult mites occurs within 8 h. Reversibility of the transovarial activity was not observed after 24 h, but did occur after a subsequent 48 h stay on untreated leaves

Effects of temperature on the activity of flucycloxuron on larval stages of Panonychus ulmi (Koch), based on LC50 values, were highly significant (P < 0.001) with temperature coefficients of −1.7 in both the ranges of 15° to 25 °C and 20° to 30 °C. The slopes of probit regression lines at 15° and 20 °C were significantly steeper than those at 25° and 30 °C. As a consequence the temperature coefficients based on LC90 values were −4.4 and −2.2, for the 2 temperature ranges. The ovicidal activity of flucycloxuron on P. ulmi was low and was only statistically detectable at 20 °C (LC90 of 84 mg a.i./l). In studies with larvae of Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus), Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus), Spodoptera exigua (Hubner) and Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) probit regression lines were parallel over temperature. The activity of flucycloxuron on these five insect species was not affected by temperature. Based on LC50 values, diflubenzuron showed positive temperature coefficients on P. xylostella of +2.1 at 15° to 25 °C and +2.5 at 20° to 30 °C. For S. littoralis the temperature coefficient was positive (+2.4) at 15° to 25 °C but negative (−1.9) at the 20° to 30 °C range. Temperature coefficients of diflubenzuron were neutral for A. aegypti, L. decemlineata and S. exigua. In the design and analysis of these studies special allowance was made for date effects and variation in natural mortality over temperature.

In untreated adults of Leptinotarsa decemlineata the mechanical penetrability of the elytra decreases until about 10 days after adult emergence. At any time during this period, this change in penetrability can be blocked by administering diflubenzuron. The blocking (by diflubenzuron) of the process by which the penetrability decreases shows identical kinetics as the inhibition of chitin formation by this compound. Histological observations of elytra revealed several types of mesocuticles. Treatment with diflubenzuron causes characteristic distortions in each of them.

Benzoylureas are insecticidal compounds interfering with chitin synthesis. A number of benzoylureas, with variations in lipophilic properties, were tested for their larvicidal and ovicidal activities on Musca domestica . The larvicidal activities were tested by mixing the compounds with the larval medium. The ovicidal activities were assessed either by feeding or by injecting female adults and resulted in nonemergence of the eggs, though the embryos seemed to be fully developed. A significant correlation ( P = 0.02) was found between ovicidal activity after adult feeding and ovicidal activity after injection. Correlation of the activities by means of a physical chemical parameter revealed that ovicidal activity after injection was the basic activity in both ovicidal activity by adult feeding as well as larvicidal activity by feeding. However, in either case this activity was coupled to a lipophilic parameter (expressed as π in the octanol/water system). Optimum π-values for ovicidal activity after adult feeding or for the larvicidal activity were 1.0 and 1.5, respectively. It is likely that at increasing lipophilicity of the compounds above the optimum values, the gut wall becomes an important barrier but that the activity at the target site is not affected. At decreasing lipophilicity the activity at the target site probably also decreases.

Diflubenzuron, 1-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)urea, possesses larvicidal and ovicidal activities. On larvae it acts mainly as a stomach poison, yet it sometimes exhibits important contact activity. Though all instars can be controlled, older instars are generally less susceptible than younger ones. Histological inspections of Leptinotarsa decemlineata larvae revealed that after ending exposure to the compound, distortions in newly deposited cuticular layers decreased gradually. Ovicidal effects resulted from direct contact of diflubenzuron with eggs or from contamination of females by contact or feeding. Electron microscopic observations of embryos of Leptinotarsa decemlineata, contaminated via the female, also showed disturbed cuticule formation, suggesting a similar activity of the compound in larvae and in eggs. Spraying the eggs of Leucoptera scitella shows the compound to be mainly ovidical at a rate of 100 mg litre−1, whilst with lower concentrations (10 and 1 mg litre−1) the young larval instar will be killed. The levels of cross-resistance to diflubenzuron as a larvicide are low and the compound can be used effectively in the field against populations that are highly resistant to conventional insecticides. Laboratory and field results, based on larvicidal and ovicidal activities of diflubenzuron, are discussed in respect of species belonging to the Diptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Acarina (Phyllocoptruta oleivora) and Hemiptera (Eurydema oleraceum and Psylla piri).

The insect integument consists of an epidermal cell layer with the overlying cuticle which it has secreted. The two major components of the insect cuticle are protein and chitin. Chitin, a polymer of acetylglucosamine, always appears to occur in association with protein. The ratio of protein to chitin differs in cuticles of different species. The conformation of the cuticle is maintained by (among other things) interactions both between protein molecules (tanning) and between protein and chitin. The cuticle can be divided into a thin outermost layer, the epicuticle, and the thicker procuticle of which the outermost layers are secreted first. In the procuticle a heavily tanned exocuticle, a lightly tanned endocuticle and occasionally an untanned mesocuticle can be distinguished.

Diflubenzuron is the common name for 1-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)urea, the active ingredient of the insecticide Dimilin.Diflubenzuron was discovered in 1971 as a larvicide. Evidence was provided by several authors that the larvicidal effect of this compound was caused by its interference with chitin synthesis. Chitin is one of the main components of the insect cuticle. As a result, treatment of larvae with diflubenzuron prevents normal growth of the cuticle in many cases. In most susceptible insect species this effect expresses itself as an incapacity of larvae to moult.During the development of diflubenzuron it was discovered that in some species the compound additionally showed an interesting ovicidal activity, caused either by treatment of females (papers I and II), or by direct contact with eggs (paper II).In paper I is shown that in the housefly (Musca domestica) diflubenzuron can evoke ovicidal effects by topical application to adult females, by oral uptake or by injection of the compound. It is remarkable, however, that in all cases of ovicidal activity the embryo inside the egg appears to develop normally. However, the apparently full-grown embryo turned out to be unable to hatch.Treatment with diflubenzuron did not influence the fecundity of the females. The compound also had no effect on fertilization of the eggs.In order to study the role of male insects in the ovicidal phenomenon, adult males of the housefly (paper I) or of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (paper II) were injected with 5μg of diflubenzuron before they were allowed to mate with untreated females. In this type of experiment no effect on fertilization or on egg mortality was observed. It was therefore concluded that diflubenzuron does not exert its ovicidal activity through the males of these two insect species.Based upon the above mentioned experiments it was concluded that the activity of diflubenzuron on eggs of insects could best be described as an ovicidal effect of the compound rather than a type of chemosterilization.To finally prove that chemosterilization plays no role whatsoever in the mode of action of diflubenzuron, embryos from eggs laid by treated females of the Colorado potato beetle were examined under the electron microscope (paper III, figures 3 and 4). It was found that instead of the normal lamellate cuticle deposition patterns that could be observed in untreated embryos, the diflubenzuron treatment resulted in an amorphous cuticle. Again, these observations suggest an identical mode of action of diflubenzuron on larvae and embryos. As a result, by virtue of a lack of rigidity in the embryonic cuticle, treated embryos cannot use their muscles in the process of egg hatching.We also found that after termination of adult treatment with diflubenzuron, the percentage of egg eclosion again increases. The degree of this reversibility depends a.o. on the concentration of diflubenzuron during the previous treatment (paper I).Many factors appeared to influence the ovicidal activity of diflubenzuron in the case of direct contact activity on susceptible eggs. From the literature there was already evidence that the particle size of the active ingredient plays an important role. In paper II is shown that the susceptibility of eggs of the large cabbage white (Pieris brassicae) decreased with increasing age. With eggs of the Colorado potato beetle we also observed that egg mortality increased with increasing relative humidity. The addition of surfactants to the spray liquid also proved to be necessary sometimes to obtain a sufficient coverage of the eggs.With eggs of the leaf miner Leucoptera scitella we found that the concentration of diflubenzuron in the spray liquid influenced the moment mortality occurred. Generally, at rates of diflubenzuron between 100 and 1 mg a.i./l, mortality occurred either in the egg stage or in the early larval stages. However, at lower concentrations the contributions of the ovicidal mortality to the overall activity of diflubenzuron decreased.Several aspects of the larvicidal activity of diflubenzuron such as feeding and contact activity, larval behaviour after treatment, and differences in susceptibility are described in paper III. This article also deals with the resumption of normal cuticle deposition in larvae of the Colorado potato beetle, after termination of diflubenzuron treatment, which is illustrated with histological observations.In paper IV a number of benzoylureas, with variations in lipophilic properties were tested for their larvicidal and ovicidal activities on the housefly. In larvicidal tests the compounds were incorporated into the larval culture medium. Ovicidal activities were assessed on female adults either by feeding or by injection.Correlation of biological activities by means of a physical chemical parameter revealed that the ovicidal activity after injection was the basic activity in both the ovicidal activity by adult feeding and in the larvicidal activity. However, in either case this activity was coupled to a lipophilic parameter, which was expressed asπin the octanol/water system. Optimumπvalues for the ovicidal activity after adult feeding and for the larvicidal activity were 1.0 and 1.5, respectively.It is likely that at increasing lipophilicity of the compounds above the optimumπvalues, the gut wall becomes an important barrier. Though penetration also decreases when the lipophilicity decreases to below the optimumπvalue, it is possible that the activity at the target site is too low to allow the gut barrier to play an important role.The properties of diflubenzuron in connection with cross-resistance and with the development of resistance in the housefly are described in paper V. Upon selection with diflubenzuron, incorporated into the larval culture medium, development of both larvicidal and ovicidal resistance was studied in a susceptible laboratory strain (S) and in a multiresistant strain (Nic). Due to the decrease in reproductive potential upon progressive selection, the breeding of strain Nic had to be determined in the F32. Observations for this study with strain S were discontinued in the F40.The larval resistance against diflubenzuron in both strains increased slowly. The final assessment of larval resistance in strain Nic, which was made in the F26, showed a 13.6-fold decrease in susceptibility when based on LC 50 values. In the F40 of strain S this factor was 40-fold.With respect to the egg resistance against diflubenzuron in the F40 of strain S we measured a similar factor as compared to the larval resistance development. However, in strain Nic the ovicidal resistance proved to increase so rapidly that in the adult feeding experiments in the F26 even the highest test concentration of 3000 mg a.i./l, of diflubenzuron in the milk only resulted in an ovicidal activity of 26%.In two field-collected strains of the housefly, cross-resistance factors for the larvicidal effect were either absent or low (viz. 5). The ovicidal cross'resistance factors for the two field strains were found to be 8.4 and 87.5 respectively. Furthermore, the level of ovicidal cross-resistance could probably be related to the resistance of the adults to some standard insecticides tested.Chitin synthesis in the integument not only occurs in embryos and larvae, but also in adult insects during a restricted period after adult emergence. On feeding diflubenzuron to newly hatched adults of the Colorado potato beetle we observed that the elytra remained weak (paper VI). For that end the stiffness of the elytra was measured mechanically as the resistance of the elytra to being punctured. In untreated beetles the mechanical penetrability of the elytra decreases up to about 10 days after adult emergence. At any time during this period we found that this decrease in penetrability could be blocked by administering diflubenzuron to the adults. Also of interest is the fact that concomitant with the effect of diflubenzuron on the penetrability of the elytra, a strong inhibition of chitin formation could be measured.Histological observations of elytra of the Colorado potato beetle revealed several types of mesocuticles. Treatment with diflubenzuron induces characteristic distortions in each of them. In the elytra of treated beetles the thickness of the cuticle, surprisingly, continued to increase. We explained this observation as an indication that protein deposition was not affected by diflubenzuron (paper VI).Quantative data in addition to the histological observations are presented in paper VII. From the experimental data we furthermore concluded that the level of ketocatechols, which parameter can be related to the degree of tanning of the structural proteins, is only partially inhibited by diflubenzuron. However, we observed that, upon feeding adults with diflubenzuron, inhibition of chitin synthesis took place at lower concentrations than its effect on the level of ketocatechols. This might indicate that the interference of diflubenzuron with the tanning process is only of a secondary nature.Based upon experiences with both larvicidal and ovicidal applications, the practical possibilities of diflubenzuron for insect pest control are evaluated in paper III, section 6.