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HighlightsStation aridity can cause overestimation of ETref at weather monitoring networks in irrigated areas.Station aridity was demonstrated in a mesoscale weather monitoring network.Station aridity is amplified in water-scarce irrigated areas during droughts.Station aridity should be accounted for to achieve water conservation through weather-informed irrigation.Abstract. Many weather monitoring networks such as the Oklahoma Mesonet provide estimates of reference evapotranspiration (ETref) to facilitate weather-informed irrigation decisions. However, weather stations that collect the required input data to estimate ETref using the widely applied ASCE standardized ETref equation are not typically installed over a reference surface, defined as a large expanse of dense, well-watered, stress-free grass or alfalfa having a specified height, surface resistance, and albedo. The deviation of actual surface conditions in the surrounding environment of the weather stations from the reference condition creates station aridity effects that can lead to overestimation of ETref. Daily hydroclimate datasets for a period of 20 years (2000-2019) were used to evaluate the prevalence and spatiotemporal characteristics of station aridity across the Oklahoma Mesonet. Station aridity was characterized based on mean dew point deviation (MDD = Tmin - Tdew), maximum relative humidity (RHmax), and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Results demonstrate that station aridity is prevalent and highly variable in both space and time across the Oklahoma Mesonet, as it increases from southeast to northwest in the Oklahoma Panhandle. Larger average seasonal MDD (up to 13°C), lower RHmax (e.g., 57%), and lower NDVI (e.g., 0.22) were observed during extreme to exceptional drought of 2011 in western Oklahoma, where a majority of the state’s irrigated agriculture (88%) is located. Spatiotemporal patterns of station aridity demonstrate the profound effect of wet and dry periods that influence the utility of ETref estimates to improve agricultural water conservation during high irrigation requirement times in water-scarce irrigated areas. Keywords: Evapotranspiration, Irrigation requirement, Reference condition, Station aridity, Weather station.

Highlights Among six manufacturer calibrations, the default calibration resulted in the largest errors. Sensor performance was negatively affected by higher clay content and salinity. Sensor-based approaches to estimating field capacity were inconsistent and spatially variable. Abstract. Maintaining the economic and environmental sustainability of crop production requires optimizing irrigation management using advanced technologies such as soil water sensors. In this study, the performance of a commercially available multi-sensor capacitance probe was evaluated under irrigated field conditions across western Oklahoma. The effects of clay content and salinity on sensor performance were investigated too. In addition, the field capacity (FC) of soil cores collected at study sites was determined in the laboratory. These laboratory FC values were used to assess the performance of two sensor-based approaches for estimating FC: the days to reach laboratory FC after major watering events and the percentile of collected sensor readings that represented laboratory FC. The results showed that among the six calibrations provided by the manufacturer, the default and silty clay loam calibrations produced the largest and smallest soil water content errors, respectively. Errors generally increased with clay and salinity, except for the heavy clay calibration, which showed improved performance with increasing clay content. The default and sand calibrations were more sensitive to increases in clay and salinity compared to other calibrations. In the case of sensor-based FC, on average, one to three days were required to reach laboratory FC, with a large range of one to nine days. The percentiles representing laboratory FC had an average of 56% and a range of 3%-97%. Overall, the sensor-based approaches produced inconsistent and highly variable estimates of FC. Keywords: Calibrations, Clay content, Irrigation scheduling, Salinity, Sensor accuracy, Soil water threshold.

Overexploitation of groundwater threatens groundwater-bound aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem stability, underscoring the need to devise appropriate mitigation strategies. Yet, there is no hindsight evidence that mitigation measures effectively protect groundwater-dependent habitats. We provide unique and compelling evidence, using artificial intelligence and ground truth data, that mitigation measures can successfully sustain ecologically sensitive spring flows and ensure the sustainability of groundwater-bound threatened and endangered endemic species.

This Supplementary Material file includes three figures related to the journal article entitled "Station Aridity in Weather Monitoring Networks: Evidence from the Oklahoma Mesonet."

Groundwater is a strategic resource for economic development, social justice, environmental sustainability, and water governance. The lower Casas Grandes River Basin, located in the state of Chihuahua, México, is in a semi-arid region with increasing groundwater demand and regional challenges such as drought and depletion of aquifers. Even though there is official information about the availability of groundwater, a comprehensive aquifer characterization requiring an interdisciplinary investigation using a diverse suite of tools and multiple data sources has yet to be carried out. This study presents a multi-technique framework to evaluate potential sites to drill for groundwater resources and reduce the risk of unsuccessful drilling. The main components of the methodology include wellhead leveling correction with a differential global positioning survey to define piezometric levels, principal component analysis using LANDSAT-8 images, application of geospatial tools, geophysics analysis using time domain electromagnetic surveys (TDES) and vertical electric soundings (VES), and structural geohydrology to define aquifer characteristics. The results showed that using the proposed framework steps improved the possibility of identifying subsurface layers with lower resistivity values that could be related to groundwater. Low resistivity values (35 Ohm-m) were found at depths from 50 to 85 m at sites where the regional static water level reached a depth of 245 m, indicating the potential location of a shallow groundwater resource at a site where the intersection of a fracture trace was identified. This procedure can be used in other regions in the world where limited information is available for groundwater exploration, thus reducing the risk of drilling dry wells in complex hydrogeological environments.

Groundwater is a strategic resource for economic development, social justice, environmental sustainability, and water governance. The Lower Casas Grandes Basin located in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico is in a semi-arid region that has increasing groundwater demands while confronting regional challenges such as adverse climate change scenarios and depleting aquifers. Even though there is official information about the availability of groundwater, comprehensive aquifer characterization is still uncertain and needs interdisciplinary investigation using a diverse suite of tools and multiple data sources. This study presents a multi-technique framework to evaluate potential sites to drill for groundwater resources. The main components of the methodology included: wellhead leveling correction with a differential global positioning survey to define piezometric levels, principal component analysis using Landsat-8 images, application of geospatial tools, geophysics using Time Domain Electromagnetic Surveys and Vertical Electric Soundings and structural geohydrology to define aquifer characteristics. Results show that the application of the framework enhances the possibility of successful drilling for groundwater while saving time and money using “pin-point” positioning for drilling sites as compared to a traditional extensive groundwater exploration approach. Low resistivity values (35 Ohm-m) were found at depths from 50m to 85m at sites where the regional static water level reached 245 m deep adding a shallow groundwater potential at sites where the intersection of fracture trace was identified. This procedure can be used at other sites where limited or minimum information is available for groundwater exploration to reduce the risk of drilling dry wells in complex hydrogeological environments.

© 2021. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.Traditional, mainstream definitions of drought describe it as deficit in water-related variables or water-dependent activities (e.g., precipitation, soil moisture, surface and groundwater storage, and irrigation) due to natural variabilities that are out of the control of local decision-makers. Here, we argue that within coupled human-water systems, drought must be defined and understood as a process as opposed to a product to help better frame and describe the complex and interrelated dynamics of both natural and human-induced changes that define anthropogenic drought as a compound multidimensional and multiscale phenomenon, governed by the combination of natural water variability, climate change, human decisions and activities, and altered micro-climate conditions due to changes in land and water management. This definition considers the full spectrum of dynamic feedbacks and processes (e.g., land-atmosphere interactions and water and energy balance) within human-nature systems that drive the development of anthropogenic drought. This process magnifies the water supply demand gap and can lead to water bankruptcy, which will become more rampant around the globe in the coming decades due to continuously growing water demands under compounding effects of climate change and global environmental degradation. This challenge has de facto implications for both short-term and long-term water resources planning and management, water governance, and policymaking. Herein, after a brief overview of the anthropogenic drought concept and its examples, we discuss existing research gaps and opportunities for better understanding, modeling, and management of this phenomenon.

The Zayandeh-Rud River Basin in the central plateau of Iran continues to grapple with water shortages due to a water-intensive development path made possible by a primarily supply-oriented water management approach to battle the water limits to growth. Despite inter-basin water transfers and increasing groundwater supply, recurring water shortages and associated tensions among stakeholders underscore key weaknesses in the current water management paradigm. There was an alarming trend of groundwater depletion in the basin’s four main aquifers in the 1993–2016 period as indicated by the results of the Mann-Kendall3 (MK3) test and Innovative Trend Analysis (ITA) of groundwater volume. The basin’s water resources declined by more than 6 BCM in 2016 compared to 2005 based on the equivalent water height (EWH) derived from monthly data (2002–2016) from the GRACE. The extensive groundwater depletion is an unequivocal evidence of reduced water availability in the face of growing basin-wide demand, necessitating water saving in all water use sectors. Implementing an integrated water resources management plan that accounts for evolving water supply priorities, growing demand and scarcity, and institutional changes is an urgent step to alleviate the growing tensions and preempt future water insecurity problems that are bound to occur if demand management approaches are delayed.

The novel infectious disease (COVID-19) took only a few weeks from its official inception in December 2019 to become a global pandemic in early 2020. Countries across the world went to lockdown, and various strict measures were implemented to reduce the further spread of the infection. Although, the strict lockdown measures were aimed at stopping the spread of COVID-19, however, Its positive implications were also observed for the environmental conditions across the global regions. The present study attempted to explore the eco-restoration of coastal marine system in response to reduced deposition of atmospheric nitrogen (NO2) emission during the substantial shift in human activities across the global metropolitan cities. Remotely data of NO2 emission were taken from Ozone Monitoring Instrument and the coastal water quality along the marine system was estimated from MODIS-Aqua Level-3 using Semi-Analytic Sediment Model (SASM). The changes in tropospheric NO2 in 2020s were also compared with the long-term average changes over the baseline period 2015 − 2019. A significant reduction in anthropogenic mobility (85 − 90%) has been observed in almost all countries over different places, especially grocery, parks, workplaces, and transit stations. A massive reduction in tropospheric NO2 was detected in Wuhan (53%), Berlin (42%), London (41%), Karachi (40%), Paris (38%), Santiago (35%), and Chennai (34%) during the strict lockdown period of the early 2020 as compared to the last five years. However, after the partial lockdown was lifted, tropospheric NO2 values bounced back and slightly increased over Karachi (6%) and Bremen (12%). For water turbidity, the rate of reduction was found to be the highest along the different coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea (51%), West Atlantic Ocean (32%), East Atlantic Ocean (29%), and Indian Ocean (21%) from Apr to Jun 2020. The monthly comparison of overland-runoff in 2020 compared to 2019 across the different costal watersheds indicates that the observed decline in turbidity might have been due to the reduced deposition of atmospheric nitrogen. The findings of this study suggest that the recent decline in tropospheric NO2 and water turbidity might be associated with reduced emissions from fossil fuels and road transports followed by COVID-19 forced restrictions in the twenty-first century. The inferences made here highlight the hope of improving the global environmental quality by reducing greenhouse gas emissions using innovative periodic confinement measures on heavy transport and industries while securing public health and socioeconomics.

Pakistan’s agriculture and food production account for 27% of its overall gross domestic product (GDP). Despite ongoing advances in technology and crop varieties, an imbalance between water availability and demand, combined with robust shifts in drought propagation has negatively affected the agro-ecosystem and environmental conditions. In this study, we examined hydro-meteorological drought propagation and its associated impacts on crop yield across natural and human-disturbed agro-ecological zones (AEZs) in Pakistan. Multisource datasets (i.e., ground observations, reanalysis, and satellites) were used to characterize the most extensive, intense drought episodes from 1981 to 2018 based on the standardized precipitation evaporation index (SPEI), standardized streamflow index (SSFI), standardized surface water storage index (SSWSI), and standardized groundwater storage index (SGWI). The most common and intense drought episodes characterized by SPEI, SSFI, SSWSI, and SGWI were observed in years 1981–1983, 2000–2003, 2005, and 2018. SPEI yielded the maximum number of drought months (90) followed by SSFI (85), SSWSI (75), and SGWI (35). Droughts were frequently longer and had a slower termination rate in the human-disturbed AEZs (e.g., North Irrigated Plain and South Irrigated Plain) compared to natural zones (e.g., Wet Mountains and Northern Dry Mountains). The historical droughts are likely caused by the anomalous large-scale patterns of geopotential height, near-surface air temperature, total precipitation, and prevailing soil moisture conditions. The negative values (

This paper investigates the hydro-climatic reasons behind the desiccation of the Hamun Lakes in the Iran-Afghanistan border. We analyzed changes in the flow of the Hirmand River (90 percent of the total inflow to the lakes) at the international border, and precipitation over this river’s sub-basin during 1960-2016 by calculating standardized indices for precipitation (SPI) and discharge (SDI). We applied Normalized Difference Spectral Indices using satellite images from 1987-2021 to observe monthly areal change of the lakes. The results show that the major cause of desiccation is upstream water regulation which severely reduced the Hirmand River inflow delivery to the lakes. Also, recently constructed reservoirs, near the lakes, compounded the effect of upstream water regulation to aggravate the situation. There is a discernible shift in the relation between the Hirmand River flow at the border and upstream precipitation before and after 2004. In 1960-2003, high Hirmand River inflows were expected due to high precipitation, while the flow declined after 2004 despite large amounts of upstream precipitation. Although a long period of drought from 1998-2004 decreased the lakes’ area, the lake system is primarily falling victim to anthropogenic flow reduction in the transboundary basin. Increased regulation of flows and use of water for irrigation in Afghanistan and Iran underscores the necessity of bilateral dialogues between the two countries to consider environmental flow of the lakes. The lakes’ shrinkage places socio-economic stress on an already-vulnerable region with public health implications as the exposed lake beds turn into major sources of dust storms.

Coastal aquifers are usually the main source of water supply for irrigation, drinkingand industrial purposes in coastal regions. They are often subject to overexploitation andconsequent quantitative and qualitative degradation. The groundwater flow system of the Chibawatershed in the CapBon peninsula (NE of Tunisia) is a typical case of an overexploited aquifer,where a piezometric depression exceeding -10 m (a.m.s.l) appeared has developed over the twolast decades. Among the numerous remediation tentatives, the SMART-WATER project aimedto propose a remediation plan based on a smart monitoring and water-energy nexus solutionthrough the installation of smart energy and water meters (SEWM). This technology aims tooptimize groundwater pumping at a set of selected representative farming systems in thewatershed. In this context, a first coupled surface water-groundwater flow model has beendeveloped and applied, coupled with energy nexus for the irrigated Chiba plain. The model isimplemented using a dynamic coupling between MODFLOW WEAP and LEAP in order toassess the SEWM system efficiency in reducing aquifer exploitation and electrical energyconsumption at farm level. Multi-objective calibration of the model using river discharge andGW level data has yielded accurate simulation of historical conditions, and resulted in better-constrained parameters compared to using either data source alone. Model simulations show thatcrop water demand cannot be met during droughts due to limited GW pumping capacity, and thatincreased GW pumping has a relatively strong impact on GW levels due to the small specificyield of the aquifer. Groundwater and energy models have also revealed that, under differentmanagement and climatic scenarios, electric energy consumption and groundwater table declineare intricately connected. Despite the short monitoring period and the intermittence of thereceived data, SEWMs have shown a promising role in monitoring groundwater pumping andengaging farmers in energy saving and aquifer sustainability.

The growth of agricultural production systems is a major driver of groundwater depletion worldwide. Balancing groundwater supply and food production requires localized understanding of groundwater storage and depletion variations in response to diverse cropping systems and surface water availability for irrigation. While advances through Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) have facilitated estimating the groundwater storage (GWS) changes in recent years, the coarse resolution of GRACE data hinders the characterization of GWS variation hotspots. Herein, we present a novel spatial water balance approach to improve the distributed estimation of groundwater storage and depletion changes at a spatial scale that can detect the hotspots of GWS variation. We used a mixed geographically weighted regression (MGWR) model to downscale GRACE Level-3 data from coarse resolution (1° × 1°) to fine scale (1 km × 1 km) based on high resolution environmental variables. We then combined the downscaled GRACE-based GWS variations with results from a calibrated Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. We demonstrate an application of the approach in the Irrigated Indus Basin (IIB). Between 2002 and 2019, total loss of groundwater reserves varied in the IIB's 55 canal command areas with the highest loss observed in Dehli Doab by50 km

The Rio Grande/Bravo is an arid river basin shared by the United States and Mexico, the fifth-longest river in North America, and home to more than 10.4 million people. By crossing landscapes and political boundaries, the Rio Grande/Bravo brings together cultures, societies, ecosystems, and economies, thereby forming a complex social-ecological system. The Rio Grande/Bravo supplies water for the human activities that take place within its territory. While there have been efforts to implement environmental flows (flows necessary to sustain riparian and aquatic ecosystems and human activities), a systematic and whole-basin analysis of these efforts that conceptualizes the Rio Grande/Bravo as a single, complex social-ecological system is missing. Our objective is to address this research and policy gap and shed light on challenges, opportunities, and success stories for implementing environmental flows in the Rio Grande/Bravo. We introduce the physical characteristics of the basin and summarize the environmental flows studies already done. We also describe its water governance framework and argue it is a distributed and nested governance system across multiple political jurisdictions and spatial scales. We describe the environmental flows legal framework and argue that the authority over different aspects of environmental flows is divided across different agencies and institutions. We discuss the prioritization of agricultural use within the governance structure without significant provisions for environmental flows. We introduce success stories for implementing environmental flows that include leasing of water rights or voluntary releases for environmental flow purposes, municipal ordinances to secure water for environmental flows, nongovernmental organizations representing the environment in decision-making processes, and acquiring water rights for environmental flows, among others initiatives. We conclude that environmental flows are possible and have been implemented but their implementation has not been systematic and permanent. There is an emerging whole-basin thinking among scientists, managers, and citizens that is helping find common-ground solutions to implementing environmental flows in the Rio Grande/Bravo basin.

Providing environmental flows is challenging in the middle portion of the Rio Grande/Bravo Basin (between Elephant Butte Reservoir in New Mexico and Presidio, Texas) where water demand has continue...

International audience; Environmental flows (e-flows) are powerful tools for sustaining freshwater biodiversity and ecosystem services, but their widespread implementation faces numerous social, political, and economic barriers. These barriers are amplified in water-limited systems where strong trade-offs exist between human water needs and freshwater ecosystem protection. We synthesize the complex, multidisciplinary challenges that exist in these systems to help identify targeted solutions to accelerate the adoption and implementation of environmental flows initiatives. We present case studies from three water-limited systems in North America and synthesize the major barriers to implementing environmental flows. We identify four common barriers: (a) lack of authority to implement e-flows in water governance structures, (b) fragmented water governance in transboundary water systems, (c) declining water availability and increasing variability under climate change, and (d) lack of consideration of non-biophysical factors. We then formulate actionable recommendations for decision makers facing these barriers when working towards implementing environmental flows: (a) modify or establish a water governance framework to recognize or allow e-flows, (b) strive for collaboration across political jurisdictions and social, economic, and environmental sectors, and (c) manage adaptively for climate change in e-flows planning and recommendations.

The infiltration of water from precipitation through the hot mix asphalt layers in flexible pavements can lead to significant decrease in the moduli of the underlying layers, especially the base layer. As a result, the weakened pavement structure can suffer more damage and deteriorate faster compared with the same pavement under its normal condition. The objective of this study is to develop a framework that can lead to public-domain software that highway agencies can use on a regular basis to conduct a rigorous analysis of the moisture-related structural damage in flexible pavements. A framework of a numerical analysis that integrates the unsaturated hydraulic analysis with finite element structural performance has been developed using two open-source software packages. The framework has been applied to different pavement structures with different drainage systems. Analyses show a significantly longer period of time when the base layer experiences high degrees of saturation in a pavement with poor drainage compared with that for a pavement with proper drainage. Consequently, it is demonstrated that the pavements weakened because of moisture infiltration suffer a significantly higher amount of damage for a longer period of time under traffic, and thus experience shorter service lives. The proposed framework can be potentially used to evaluate and improve the resilience of pavement networks against extreme events that cause heavy precipitation, as well as to evaluate the impact of drainage structures and conditions on life during structural analysis and design of pavements.

Coarse temporal (i.e., annual) and spatial (i.e., watershed) scales camouflage water stress associated with withdrawals from surface water and groundwater sources. To address this "curse of scale", we developed a framework to characterize water stress at different time scales and at fine spatial scales that have not been explored before. Our framework incorporates surface water-groundwater interactions by accounting for spatially cumulative consumptive and nonconsumptive use impacts and associated changes in flow due to depletion and return flow along stream networks. We apply the framework using a rich data set of water withdrawals from more than 6800 principal facilities (i.e., withdrawal capacity >380 000 L/day) across the U.S. Great Lakes Basin. Results underscore the importance of spatiotemporal scale and return flows when characterizing water stress. Although the majority of catchments in this water-rich region do not experience large stress, a number of small headwater catchments with sensitive streams are vulnerable to flow depletion caused by surface water and shallow groundwater withdrawals, especially in a high-withdrawal, low-flow month (e.g., August). The return flow from deep groundwater withdrawals compensates for the streamflow depletion to the extent that excess flow is likely in many catchments. The improved ability to pinpoint the imbalance between natural water supply and withdrawals based on stream-specific ecological water stress thresholds facilitates protecting fragile aquatic ecosystems in vulnerable catchments.

Significance Iran is facing a state of water bankruptcy that threatens its socioeconomic development and natural environments. Using an exceptionally rich measured groundwater dataset, we illustrate the extent and severity of Iran’s groundwater depletion and salinization problems during the 2002 to 2015 period, when the number of groundwater extraction points nearly doubled. Iran’s nonrenewable groundwater withdrawal was about 66 million m3 in 1965, which cumulatively grew to approximately 133 × 103 million m3 in 2019. This increase is about 3.4 times the capacity of the famous Three Gorges Dam in China. Groundwater decline due to extensive overexploitation of nonrenewable groundwater and rising salinity levels are documented in almost all subbasins, pointing to dire, worsening water security risks across the country., Global groundwater assessments rank Iran among countries with the highest groundwater depletion rate using coarse spatial scales that hinder detection of regional imbalances between renewable groundwater supply and human withdrawals. Herein, we use in situ data from 12,230 piezometers, 14,856 observation wells, and groundwater extraction points to provide ground-based evidence about Iran’s widespread groundwater depletion and salinity problems. While the number of groundwater extraction points increased by 84.9% from 546,000 in 2002 to over a million in 2015, the annual groundwater withdrawal decreased by 18% (from 74.6 to 61.3 km3/y) primarily due to physical limits to fresh groundwater resources (i.e., depletion and/or salinization). On average, withdrawing 5.4 km3/y of nonrenewable water caused groundwater tables to decline 10 to 100 cm/y in different regions, averaging 49 cm/y across the country. This caused elevated annual average electrical conductivity (EC) of groundwater in vast arid/semiarid areas of central and eastern Iran (16 out of 30 subbasins), indicating “very high salinity hazard” for irrigation water. The annual average EC values were generally lower in the wetter northern and western regions, where groundwater EC improvements were detected in rare cases. Our results based on high-resolution groundwater measurements reveal alarming water security threats associated with declining fresh groundwater quantity and quality due to many years of unsustainable use. Our analysis offers insights into the environmental implications and limitations of water-intensive development plans that other water-scarce countries might adopt.

Although dimensional analysis suggests sound functional forms (FFs) to calculate longitudinal dispersion coefficient (Kx), no attempt has been made to quantify both reliability of the estimated Kx value and its sensitivity to variation of the FFs' parameters. This paper introduces a new index named bandwidths similarity factor (bws–factor) to quantify the reliability of FFs based on a rigorous analysis of distinct calibration datasets to tune the FFs. We modified the bootstrap approach to ensure that each resampled calibration dataset is representative of available datapoints in a rich, global database of tracer studies. The dimensionless Kx values were calculated by 200 FFs tuned with the generalized reduced gradient algorithm. Correlation coefficients for the tuned FFs varied from 0.60 to 0.98. The bws–factor ranged from 0.11 to 1.00, indicating poor reliability of FFs for Kx calculation, mainly due to different sources of error in the Kx calculation process. The calculated exponent of the river's aspect ratio varied over a wider range (i.e., −0.76 to 1.50) compared to that computed for the river's friction term (i.e., −0.56 to 0.87). Since Kx is used in combination with one-dimensional numerical models in water quality studies, poor reliability in its estimation can result in unrealistic concentrations being simulated by the models downstream of pollutant release into rivers.

Reliable forecasts of water demand that account for factors that drive demand are imperative to understanding future urban water needs. The effects of meteorological dynamics and sociocultu...

This review focuses on the use of Interpretable Artificial Intelligence (IAI) and eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) models for data imputations and numerical or categorical hydroclimatic predictions from nonlinearly combined multidimensional predictors. The AI models considered in this paper involve Extreme Gradient Boosting, Light Gradient Boosting, Categorical Boosting, Extremely Randomized Trees, and Random Forest. These AI models can transform into XAI models when they are coupled with the explanatory methods such as the Shapley additive explanations and local interpretable model-agnostic explanations. The review highlights that the IAI models are capable of unveiling the rationale behind the predictions while XAI models are capable of discovering new knowledge and justifying AI-based results, which are critical for enhanced accountability of AI-driven predictions. The review also elaborates the importance of domain knowledge and interventional IAI modeling, potential advantages and disadvantages of hybrid IAI and non-IAI predictive modeling, unequivocal importance of balanced data in categorical decisions, and the choice and performance of IAI versus physics-based modeling. The review concludes with a proposed XAI framework to enhance the interpretability and explainability of AI models for hydroclimatic applications.

The Korba region in northwestern Tunisia has a coastal aquifer that is impacted by intensive irrigation, urban expansion, and sensitivity to SWI. We assessed the vulnerability extent of Korba’s GW to SWI. We utilized a parametric model for GW vulnerability assessment, the GALDIT, which considers six parameters to determine SWI effects. The GALDIT map has four rating categories (≥7.5, 7.5–5, 5–2.5, and

International audience; Mapping groundwater recharge zones (GWRZs) is essential for planning artificial recharge programs to mitigate groundwater decline and saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers. We applied two multi-criteria decision-making approaches, namely the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and the multi-influencing factors (MIF), to map GWRZs in the Korba aquifer in northeastern Tunisia. GWRZ results from the AHP indicate that the majority (69%) of the area can be classified as very good and good for groundwater recharge. The MIF results suggest larger (80.7%) very good and good GWRZs. The GWRZ maps improve groundwater balance calculations by providing estimates of recharge-precipitation ratios to quantify percolation. Lithology, land use/cover and slope were the most sensitive parameters followed by geomorphology, lineament density, rainfall, drainage density and soil type. The AHP approach produced relatively more accurate results than the MIF technique based on correlation of the obtained GWRZs with groundwater well discharge data from 20 wells across the study area. The accuracy of the approaches ultimately depends on the classification criteria, mean rating score and weights assigned to the thematic layers. Nonetheless, the GWRZ maps suggest that there is ample opportunity to implement aquifer recharge programs to reduce groundwater stress in the Korba aquifer.

The Zayandeh-Rud River Basin in the central plateau of Iran continues to grapple with water shortages due to a water-intensive development path made possible by a primarily supply-oriented water management approach to battle the water limits to growth. Despite inter-basin water transfers and increasing groundwater supply, recurring water shortages and associated tensions among stakeholders underscore key weaknesses in the current water management paradigm. There was an alarming trend of groundwater depletion in the basin's four main aquifers in the 1993-2016 period as indicated by the results of the Mann-Kendall3 (MK3) test and Innovative Trend Analysis (ITA) of groundwater volume. The basin's water resources declined by more than 6 BCM in 2016 compared to 2005 based on the equivalent water height (EWH) derived from monthly data (2002-2016) from the GRACE. The extensive groundwater depletion is an unequivocal evidence of reduced water availability in the face of growing basin-wide demand, necessitating water saving in all water use sectors. Implementing an integrated water resources management plan that accounts for evolving water supply priorities, growing demand and scarcity, and institutional changes is an urgent step to alleviate the growing tensions and preempt future water insecurity problems that are bound to occur if demand management approaches are delayed.

Understanding the complexity and feedbacks among food, energy, and water (FEW) systems is key to making informed decisions about sustainable development. This paper presents qualitative representation and quantitative system dynamics simulation of the water resources system in the Qazvin Plain, Iran, taking into account the energy intensity of water supply and interconnected water use sectors (e.g., urban, industrial, and agricultural). Qazvin Plain faces water resources challenges that are common to arid/semi-arid areas, including frequent droughts, declining surface water and groundwater, and increased urban and agricultural water demand. A system dynamics model is developed using historical data (2006–2016) to investigate the effects of anticipated dynamics of integrated water and energy sectors in the next two decades. The results of policy scenarios (2020–2039) demonstrate that the continuation of the existing management policies will cause severe damage to the water and energy sectors, pushing the system towards water resources limits to growth. An annual groundwater table decline of nearly 1 m is anticipated, indicating significant overshoot of the plain's natural recharge capacity, which may lead to the depletion of recoverable groundwater in the plain within the next three decades. The groundwater table decline will cause energy consumption of water supply to increase by about 32% (i.e., 380 GWh) to maintain irrigated agriculture. It is critical to implement a combination of water demand and supply management policies (e.g., net agricultural water savings and recycling treated wastewater) to delay the problem of water limits to growth in the region.

The coastal areas of Florida, United States, are exposed to increasing risk of flooding due to sea level rise as well as severe hurricanes. Florida regulations suggest constructing stormwater retention ponds as an option to retain excess runoff generated by the increased impervious area and to protect the environment by reducing pollutants from new developments. Groundwater level rise can significantly lower the soil storage capacity and infiltration at retention ponds, in turn, reducing the pond&rsquo, s capacity to capture consecutive storms due to longer pond volume recovery time. Partial groundwater inundation can affect retention ponds&rsquo, ability to decrease peak flow rates and keep the post-development outflow lower than or equal to pre-development conditions. In this paper, the reliability and performance of a retention pond near Tampa Bay, Florida, was evaluated under sea level rise conditions. An integrated surface water and groundwater model was developed, and the groundwater table was projected for future conditions as a function of sea level rise. The results showed that sea level rise could increase the seasonal high water elevation of the retention pond up to 40 cm by mid-21st century. This increase lowered the reliability of the retention pond by about 45%. The pond failed to recover the designed treatment volume within required 72 h because of the high groundwater table, increasing the risk of pollutant discharge. Furthermore, the peak flow and volume of runoff significantly increased under sea level rise and associated groundwater table rise conditions. The study results suggest that it is imperative to consider future sea level rise conditions in stormwater design in low-lying coastal areas of Florida and around the world to prevent poor pond performance and increased risk of flooding in the future.

By combining long-term ground-based data on water withdrawal with climate model projections, this study quantifies the compounding effects of human activities and climate change on surface water availability in Iran over the twenty-first century. Our findings show that increasing water withdrawal in Iran, due to population growth and increased agricultural activities, has been the main source of historical water stress. Increased levels of water stress across Iran are expected to continue or even worsen over the next decades due to projected variability and change in precipitation combined with heightened water withdrawals due to increasing population and socio-economic activities. The greatest rate of decreased water storage is expected in the Urmia Basin, northwest of Iran, (varying from ~ − 8.3 mm/year in 2010–2039 to ~ − 61.6 mm/year in 2070–2099 compared with an observed rate of 4 mm/year in 1976–2005). Human activities, however, strongly dominate the effects of precipitation variability and change. Major shifts toward sustainable land and water management are needed to reduce the impacts of water scarcity in the future, particularly in Iran’s heavily stressed basins like Urmia Basin, which feeds the shrinking Lake Urmia.

This paper examines the coupled effects of weather condition, crop coverage change, and regional water management (i.e., releases from Caballo Reservoir) on hydrologic characteristics of Rincon Valley (2466 km2), a semi-arid agricultural area in New Mexico, U.S.A., using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The model simulates the vertical water budget and horizontal water transfers during the period 1994–2013, incorporating irrigation of fourteen crops in normal (2008) and dry (2011) years to evaluate the hydrologic impacts of cropping change as a drought-adaptive water management strategy. It was calibrated (2000–2002) and validated (2003–2005) using daily-observed streamflow data. Furthermore, evapotranspiration, diversion and irrigation water volume were verified for the period of 2000–2005 using monthly crop irrigation requirement data and canal discharge data. Results demonstrate the significant role of surface water infiltration, providing approximately 18% of the average annual groundwater recharge during the irrigation season. Watershed scale evapotranspiration (ET) and return flows for the irrigation season were estimated to be 23% and 1% higher than those for the non-irrigation season, respectively. For irrigation units, the ratio of ET to combined precipitation and irrigation water for the dry year was 5% higher than the normal year whereas surface runoff, soil water storage, and groundwater recharge were 7%, 17%, and 39% lower than the normal year, respectively. High groundwater recharge occurs in the hydrologic response units (HRU) where corn and cotton are planted on silty clay loam soil. The Alfalfa acreage (i.e., the largest water user) was reduced by 15% while the cotton acreage was increased by 13% in order to adapt to lower water availability during the dry year. Quantitative understanding of the hydrologic fluxes in the Rincon Valley’s irrigated agricultural area illuminates adaptive land and water management to buffer the adverse impacts of prolonged droughts.

An abiotic synthesis of nucleobases from amino acids is of critical importance as it sheds a light on potential pre-life chemical reactions. However, information about reaction pathway is often not available directly from laboratory experiments. In contrary, computational simulations allow to learn chemical transformations directly. In the present study, we investigated one of promising routes of uracil synthesis from cysteine, using density functional theory at the M06-2X/6-311G(d,p) level. We suggested that the solvent (urea) facilitates the reaction acting as self-catalyst. Proposed reaction pathway involves seven reactions with the highest activation energy barrier equal to 42.8 kcal/mol.

Reforms currently under way in China's electricity markets bear important implications for its decarbonization objectives. The southwestern province of Yunnan is among the provinces piloting the current iteration of power market reforms. As such, lessons from Yunnan will inform future market reform and renewable energy policies in China and potentially elsewhere. The dominance of hydropower in Yunnan's energy portfolio and the particular transmission constraints it faces, offer an interesting case study of the challenges of decarbonization. We report on market architecture reforms and aggregate market data collected from the Yunnan Power Exchange. We review four elements in the reformed market architecture. Market pricing rules, transitional quantity controls, the generation rights market, and inter-provincial trade. The specifics of market reform reflect a compromise between decarbonization, inter-provincial competition, grid security and development objectives and contribute to understanding of how the dual transitions of hydropower decarbonization and market liberalization interact. We conclude on six insights regarding the role of the grid operator, security checks on trade, integration of cascade hydropower, the inclusion of renewables in the generation rights market, price controls, and market participant price uncertainty.

South Florida's water infrastructure and ecosystems are under pressure from socio-economic growth. Understanding the region's water resources management tradeoffs is essential for developing effective adaptation strategies to cope with emerging challenges such as climate change and sea level rise, which are expected to affect many other regions in the future. We describe a network-based hydro-economic optimization model of the system to investigate the tradeoffs, incorporating the economic value of water in urban and agricultural sectors and economic damages due to urban flooding while also accounting for water supply to sustain fragile ecosystems such as the Everglades and coastal estuaries. Results illustrate that maintaining high reliability of urban water supply under scenarios of reduced water availability (i.e., drier climate conditions) may trigger economic losses to the Everglades Agricultural Area, which will likely become more vulnerable as competition over scarce water resources increases. More pronounced economic losses are expected in urban and agricultural areas when flows to the Everglades are prioritized. Flow targets for coastal estuaries are occasionally exceeded under optimal flow allocations to various demand nodes, indicating that additional storage may be needed to maintain the environmental integrity of the estuarine ecosystems. Wetter climate conditions, on the other hand, generally lead to increased flows throughout the system with positive effects on meeting water demands, although flood mitigation efforts will necessitate additional releases to the estuaries. Strengths and limitations of the hydro-economic model are discussed.

This study estimates economic loss from South Florida croplands when usage of agricultural irrigation water is altered. In South Florida, 78% of the total value of farm products sold is comprised of cropland products. The majority of Florida citrus and sugarcane are produced in the area, and agricultural irrigation was the largest sector of water use in 2010, followed by public water supply. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection announced in December 2012 that traditional sources of fresh groundwater will have difficulty meeting all of the additional demands by 2030. A shortage of water will impose significant damage to the rural and agriculture economy in Florida, which may lead to higher prices and costs for consumers to purchase citrus or other Florida agriculture products. This paper presents a methodology for estimating economic loss when usage of irrigation water is altered, and examines economic values of irrigation water use for South Florida cropland. The efficient allocation of irrigation water across South Florida cropland is also investigated in order to reduce economic cost to the South Florida agricultural sector.

Fullerene and its derivatives may bind to biological molecules, causing inhibitory effects. In this context, investigations of interactions of fullerene-based conjugates with proteins are of general interest. Particularly, fullerene and its derivatives demonstrate antibacterial properties; and one of the potential targets for drug design and health therapy is the inhibition of 6-oxopurine phosphoribosyltransferase in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (PDB code: 4RHY). In this article, the binding interactions between a series of quinazoline-4(3H)-ones and their fullerene derivatives with the target transferase were computationally investigated. Initially, we developed predictive quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) models. Next, we introduced a simplified calculation schema that allows to evaluate relative binding affinities and to reveal specific mechanisms of action. For this purpose, the molecular docking approach was utilized to identify the native poses of the 18 transferase inhibitors. The binding pocket of the target protein was isolated and semi-empirical, and hybrid ONIOM scoring functions at different levels of theory were used to treat the ligands and the isolated binding pocket. The agreement within the calculated binding-free energies trends, as well as the agreement with the experimental data, suggests that the developed calculation schema can be used to estimate relative binding affinities towards 4RH. The combination of quantum-chemical models and QSAR models could be applied for future design of new selective inhibitors.

The complexity of pollutant-mixing mechanism in open channels generates large uncertainty in estimation of longitudinal and lateral dispersion coefficients (Kx and Ky). Therefore, Kx and Ky estimation in rivers should be accompanied by an uncertainty analysis, a subject mainly ignored in previous studies. We introduce a method based on thorough analysis of different calibration datasets, resampled from a global database of tracer studies, to determine the uncertainty associated with five applicable intelligent models for estimation of Kx and Ky (model tree, evolutionary polynomial regression (EPR), gene-expression programming, multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS), and support vector machine (SVM)). Our findings suggest that SVM gives least uncertainty in both Kx and Ky estimation, while EPR and MARS generate most uncertainty in Kx and Ky estimation, respectively. By considering significant uncertainty in the model estimations, we suggest that the methodology we introduce here for uncertainty determination of the models be incorporated in empirical studies on estimation of Kx and Ky in rivers.

The anion-binding properties of two tripodal-based hexaureas appended with the m-nitrophenyl (1) and pentafluorophenyl (2) groups have been studied both experimentally and theoretically, showing strong affinities for sulfate over other inorganic oxoanions such as hydrogen sulfate, dihydrogen phosphate, bicarbonate, nitrate, and perchlorate. The structural analysis of the sulfate complex with 1 reveals that the receptor organizes all urea-binding sites toward the cavity at precise orientations around a tetrahedral sulfate anion to form an ideal C3-symmetric sulfate complex that is stabilized by 12 hydrogen-bonding interactions. The receptor and the encapsulated sulfate are located on the threefold axis passing through the bridgehead nitrogen of 1 and the sulfur atom of the anionic guest. The high-level density functional theory calculations support the crystallographic results, demonstrating that the C3-symmetric conformation of the sulfate complex is achieved due to the complementary NH···O between the re...

The recognition of anions by designed receptors has attracted much attention in recent days. In particular, the selective binding of sulfate with artificial receptors is important because of its relevance to many biological and environmental applications. However, the development of organized molecular receptors with high-efficiency for sulfate binding still remains a significant challenge. We report a novel para-phenylene-bridged hexafunctional tripodal receptor that contains a urea-based inner cleft and a thiourea-based outer cleft, providing perfect sites for step-wise binding of two anions within a single cavity. The new receptor was synthesized in a three-step process, and was investigated for its anion binding properties by 1H NMR titrations, 2D NOESY experiments and computational studies. As indicated by solution binding studies, the receptor selectively binds sulfate over other oxoanions, forming a 1:2 stoichiometric complex that is stabilized via strong H-bonding interactions. High-level DFT calculations reveal that the receptor, owing to the enhanced H-bonding ability of thiourea groups, initially encapsulates one sulfate in its thiourea-based outer cleft, followed by a second encapsulation in its urea-based inner cleft. Such a functionalized receptor with the unique combination of urea-based cleft and thiourea-based cleft in a single receptor has not been reported previously.

The Zayandeh-Rud River basin, Iran, is projected to face spatiotemporally heterogeneous temperature increase and precipitation reduction that will decrease water supply by mid-century. With projected increase (0.70–1.03 °C) in spring temperature and reduction (6– 55%) in winter precipitation, the upper Zayandeh-Rud sub-basin, the main source of renewable water supply, will likely become warmer and drier. In the lower sub-basin, 1.1–1.5 °C increase in temperature and 11–31% decrease in annual precipitation are likely. A system dynamics model was used to analyze adaptation strategies taking into account feedbacks between water resources development and biophysical and socioeconomic sub-systems. Results suggest that infrastructural improvements, rigorous water demand management (e.g., replacing high water demand crops such as rice, corn, and alfalfa), and ecosystem-based regulatory prioritization, complemented by supply augmentation can temporarily alleviate water stress in a basin that is essentially governed by the Limits to Growth archetype

International audience; Tunisia relies extensively on coastal groundwater resources that are pumped at unsustainable rates to support irrigated agriculture, causing groundwater drawdown and water quality problems due to seawater intrusion. It is imperative for the country to regulate future groundwater allocations and implement conservation strategies based on robust hydrogeological assessments to alleviate the adverse impacts of groundwater depletion. We developed a 3D transient density-dependent groundwater model by coupling MODFLOW-2000 and MT3DMS to improve understanding of seawater intrusion into the Korba aquifer in Tunisia. Results indicate that groundwater overexploitation since 1965 induced 5.15 Mm3/year of seawater inflow while reducing submarine discharge into the sea by about 9.74 Mm3/year as compared to the steady state water budget in 1965. Projecting withdrawals from 2014 up to 2050 results in a slow but extensive groundwater table decline forming a cone of depression 15 m below sea level. The seawater wedge under this business-as-usual scenario is expected to reach 1.8 km from the shoreline, causing significant mixing of the TDS-rich seawater in the aquifer system. The cone of depression under a 25% increase in groundwater withdrawal drops to about 20 m below sea level while the saltwater front reaches 2.5 km inland. Countering the seawater intrusion problem requires reducing groundwater pumping by 17 Mm3/year to push back the saltwater front along the coastline by about 25% over a 43-year period. Application of the presented generic groundwater simulation framework guides developing management strategies to mitigate seawater intrusion in the Korba coastal aquifer and similar areas.

Engineers face the ongoing challenge to effectively communicate for diverse purposes and audiences across multiple settings. The authors interviewed 10 practicing water resources systems en...