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Stress-related exhaustion is associated with cognitive deficits, measured subjectively using questionnaires targeting everyday slips and failures or more objectively as performance on cognitive tests. Yet, only weak associations between subjective and objective cognitive measures in this group has been presented, theorized to reflect recruitment of compensational resources during cognitive testing. This explorative study investigated how subjectively reported symptoms of cognitive functioning and burnout levels relate to performance as well as neural activation during a response inhibition task. To this end, 56 patients diagnosed with stress-related exhaustion disorder (ED; ICD-10 code F43.8A) completed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) using a Flanker paradigm. In order to investigate associations between neural activity and subjective cognitive complaints (SCCs) and burnout, respectively, scores on the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) and the Shirom-Melamed Burnout Questionnaire (SMBQ) were added as covariates of interest to a general linear model at the whole-brain level. In agreement with previous research, the results showed that SCCs and burnout levels were largely unrelated to task performance. Moreover, we did not see any correlations between these self-report measures and altered neural activity in frontal brain regions. Instead, we observed an association between the PRMQ and increased neural activity in an occipitally situated cluster. We propose that this finding may reflect compensational processes at the level of basic visual attention which could go unnoticed in cognitive testing but still be reflected in the experience of deficits in everyday cognitive functioning. Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-04-05 (hanlid)

Background Stress-related exhaustion is associated with cognitive impairment as measured by both subjective cognitive complaints (SCCs) and objective cognitive test performance. This study aimed to examine how patients diagnosed with exhaustion disorder differ from healthy control participants in regard to levels and type of SCCs, and if SCCs are associated with cognitive test performance and psychological distress. Methods We compared a group of patients with stress-related exhaustion disorder (n = 103, female = 88) with matched healthy controls (n = 58, female = 47) cross-sectionally, concerning the type and magnitude of self-reported SCCs. We furthermore explored the association between SCCs and cognitive test performance as well as with self-reported depression, anxiety and burnout levels, in the patient and the control group, respectively. Results Patients reported considerably more cognitive failures and were more likely than controls to express memory failures in situations providing few external cues and reminders in the environment. In both groups, SCCs were associated with demographic and psychological factors, and not with cognitive test performance. Conclusion Our findings underline the high burden of cognitive problems experienced by patients with exhaustion disorder, particularly in executively demanding tasks without external cognitive support. From a clinical perspective, SCCs and objective cognitive test performance may measure different aspects of cognitive functioning, and external cognitive aids could be of value in stress rehabilitation. Trial registration Participants were recruited as part of the Rehabilitation for Improved Cognition (RECO) study (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03073772). Date of registration: 8 March 2017

Gait speed is a measure of health and functioning. Physical and cognitive determinants of gait are amenable to interventions, but best practices remain unclear. We investigated the effects of a 12-month physical and cognitive training (PTCT) on gait speed, dual-task cost in gait speed, and executive functions (EFs) compared with physical training (PT) (ISRCTN52388040). Community-dwelling older adults, who did not meet physical activity recommendations, were recruited (n = 314). PT included supervised walking/balance (once weekly) and resistance/balance training (once weekly), home exercises (2-3 times weekly), and moderate aerobic activity 150 min/week in bouts of >10 min. PTCT included the PT and computer training (CT) on EFs 15-20 min, 3-4 times weekly. The primary outcome was gait speed. Secondary outcomes were 6-min walking distance, dual-task cost in gait speed, and EF (Stroop and Trail Making B-A). The trial was completed by 93% of the participants (age 74.5 [SD3.8] years; 60% women). Mean adherence to supervised sessions was 59%-72% in PT and 62%-77% in PTCT. Home exercises and CT were performed on average 1.9 times/week. Weekly minutes spent in aerobic activities were 188 (median 169) in PT and 207 (median 180) in PTCT. No significant interactions were observed for gait speed (PTCT-PT, 0.02; 95%CI -0.03, 0.08), walking distance (-3.8; -16.9, 9.3) or dual-task cost (-0.22; -1.74, 1.30). Stroop improvement was greater after PTCT than PT (-6.9; -13.0, -0.8). Complementing physical training with EFs training is not essential for promotion of gait speed. For EF's, complementing physical training with targeted cognitive training provides additional benefit.

Physical and cognitive interventions have been shown to induce positive effects on older adults' executive functioning. However, since participants with different background characteristics may respond differently to such interventions, we investigated whether training effects on executive functions were associated with sex, training compliance, and age. We also investigated if change in global cognition was associated with physical and cognitive training intervention-induced changes in executive functions.Exploratory data from a randomized controlled trial were analyzed. Participants were 70-85-year-old men and women who received a 12-month physical (PT) or physical and cognitive training (PTCT) intervention. Measurements of executive functions related to inhibition (Stroop), set shifting (Trail Making Test B) and updating (Verbal Fluency) were performed at baseline and 12 months. Data were analyzed using a longitudinal linear path model for the two measurements occasion.Stroop improved significantly more in women and participants in the low compliance subgroup who received PTCT than in counterparts in the PT subgroup (difference -8.758,Executive functions in women and in the participants, who only occasionally engaged in training showed greater improvement after the PTCT than PT intervention. However, the additional extra benefit gained from the PTCT intervention was uniquely expressed in each executive function measured in this study.

Funder: Finnish Social Insurance Institution, Finland, Funder: Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland, Funder: Juho Vainio Foundation, Finland, Funder: EU Joint Programme ‐ Neurodegenerative Disease Research (MIND‐AD, EURO‐FINGERS), Funder: Alzheimer's Research and Prevention Foundation, US, Funder: Alzheimerfonden, Sweden, Funder: Hjärnfonden, Sweden, Funder: Swedish Research Council, Sweden, Funder: Center for Innovative Medicine (CIMED) at Karolinska Institutet, Sweden, Funder: Region Stockholm (ALF, NSV), Sweden, Funder: Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden, Funder: Stiftelsen Stockholms sjukhem, Sweden, Funder: Konung Gustaf V:s och Drottning Victorias Frimurarstiftelse, Sweden, Funder: Finnish Cultural Foundation, Finland, Funder: Jalmari and Rauha Ahokas Foundation, Finland, Funder: Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation, Finland, Funder: State research funding (EVO/VTR grants) of Oulu University Hospital and Oulu City Hospital, and Kuopio University Hospital, Finland, Funder: UEF Strategic funding for UEFBRAIN, Finland, Funder: Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare, Sweden, Funder: The Heart Disease Foundation, Finland, Funder: Umeå University, Sweden, INTRODUCTION: Lifestyle interventions may prevent cognitive decline, but the sufficient dose of intervention activities and lifestyle changes is unknown. We investigated how intervention adherence affects cognition in the FINGER trial (pre-specified subgroup analyses). METHODS: FINGER is a multicenter randomized controlled trial examining the efficacy of multidomain lifestyle intervention (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01041989). A total of 1260 participants aged 60 to 77 with increased dementia risk were randomized to a lifestyle intervention and control groups. Percentage of completed intervention sessions, and change in multidomain lifestyle score (self-reported diet; physical, cognitive, and social activity; vascular risk) were examined in relation to change in Neuropsychological Test Battery (NTB) scores. RESULTS: Active participation was associated with better trajectories in NTB total and all cognitive subdomains. Improvement in lifestyle was associated with improvement in NTB total and executive function. DISCUSSION: Multidomain lifestyle changes are beneficial for cognitive functioning, but future interventions should be intensive enough, and supporting adherence is essential.

Human and non-human animal research converge to suggest that the sense of smell, olfaction, has a high level of plasticity and is intimately associated with visual-spatial orientation and memory encoding networks. We investigated whether olfactory memory (OM) training would lead to transfer to an untrained visual memory (VM) task, as well as untrained olfactory tasks. We devised a memory intervention to compare transfer effects generated by olfactory and non-olfactory (visual) memory training. Adult participants were randomly assigned to daily memory training for about 40 days with either olfactory or visual tasks that had a similar difficulty level. Results showed that while visual training did not produce transfer to the OM task, olfactory training produced transfer to the untrained VM task. Olfactory training also improved participants’ performance on odor discrimination and naming tasks, such that they reached the same performance level as a high-performing group of wine professionals. Our results indicate that the olfactory system is highly responsive to training, and we speculate that the sense of smell may facilitate transfer of learning to other sensory domains. Further research is however needed in order to replicate and extend our findings.

Cognitive impairment is a central non-motor symptom of Parkinson's disease (PD), and there are no established treatments. Computerized cognitive training (CCT) is a safe and efficacious strategy but its efficacy in PD is unclear. We aimed to investigate the efficacy of CCT on cognitive, psychosocial and daily function, and assess potential effect moderators in people with PD without dementia. Randomized controlled trials of CCT were included in multivariate meta-analyses and meta-regressions. Seventeen studies (16 trials) encompassing 679 participants were included. The pooled effect of CCT relative to control was small and statistically significant for overall cognitive function (g=0.16; 95% CI 0.02-0.29). There was robust evidence for benefit on clinical measures of global cognition across 10 trials (g=0.33; 95% CI 0.19-0.48), especially in PD with mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI), as well as on individual cognitive domains. Greater CCT dose and PD-MCI population were associated with larger effect sizes, but no statistically significant differences were found between subgroups. There was no significant difference in the efficacy of home-based compared to supervised training. Our findings suggest that CCT is associated with cognitive benefits in PD, including when delivered remotely. Larger, well-powered trials are warranted to examine what specific CCT regimens are most likely to promote cognitive and everyday functioning in the long-term.

Background The aim of this study is to investigate whether combined cognitive and physical training provides additional benefits to fall prevention when compared with physical training (PT) alone in older adults. Methods This is a prespecified secondary analysis of a single-blind, randomized controlled trial involving community-dwelling men and women aged 70–85 years who did not meet the physical activity guidelines. The participants were randomized into combined physical and cognitive training (PTCT, n = 155) and PT (n = 159) groups. PT included supervised and home-based physical exercises following the physical activity recommendations. PTCT included PT and computer-based cognitive training. The outcome was the rate of falls over the 12-month intervention (PTCT, n = 151 and PT, n = 155) and 12-month postintervention follow-up (PTCT, n = 143 and PT, n = 148). Falls were ascertained from monthly diaries. Exploratory outcomes included the rate of injurious falls, faller/recurrent faller/fall-related fracture status, and concern about falling. Results Estimated incidence rates of falls per person-year were 0.8 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.7–1.1) in the PTCT and 1.1 (95% CI 0.9–1.3) in the PT during the intervention and 0.8 (95% CI 0.7–1.0) versus 1.0 (95% CI 0.8–1.1), respectively, during the postintervention follow-up. There was no significant difference in the rate of falls during the intervention (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 0.78; 95% CI 0.56–1.10, p = .152) or in the follow-up (IRR = 0.83; 95% CI 0.59–1.15, p = .263). No significant between-group differences were observed in any exploratory outcomes. Conclusion A yearlong PTCT intervention did not result in a significantly lower rate of falls or concern about falling than PT alone in older community-dwelling adults. Clinical Trial Registration ISRCTN52388040

Walking is a complex task requiring the interplay of neuromuscular, sensory, and cognitive functions. Owing to the age-related decline in cognitive and physical functions, walking may be compromised in older adults, for cognitive functions, especially poor performance in executive functions, is associated with slow walking speed. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate the associations between different subdomains of executive functions and physical functions and whether the associations found differ between men and women. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed on data collected from 314 community-dwelling older adults who did not meet physical activity guidelines but had intact cognition. Our results showed that, while executive functions were associated with gait and lower extremity functioning, the associations depended partly on the executive process measured and the nature of the physical task. Moreover, the associations did not differ between the sexes. acceptedVersion

This study investigated whether personality traits moderate the effects of a 12-month physical or combined physical and cognitive training interventions on physical and cognitive functioning. Participants were community-dwelling 70–85-year-old adults (n=314). They were randomly assigned to physical training (weekly supervised walking/balance and strength/balance training, home exercises 2–3x/wk and moderate aerobic activity) or to a physical and cognitive training group (the same physical training and computer training on executive functions 3–4x/wk). The outcomes assessed at baseline and post-intervention were physical (maximum gait speed, six-minute walking distance, dual-task cost on gait speed) and cognitive functioning (Stroop, Trail-Making Test-B, verbal fluency, CERAD total score). Personality traits (NEO-PI-3, n=239) were assessed post-intervention. Personality traits did not moderate intervention effects on physical functioning. Higher openness was associated with greater improvement in CERAD scores, especially in the physical and cognitive training group (group×time×trait B=−.08, p=.038). Lower neuroticism (time×trait B=−.04, p=.021) and higher conscientiousness (time×trait B=.04, p=.027) were associated with greater improvement in CERAD scores in both groups. Personality traits had mostly null moderating effects across physical and cognitive outcomes, with the possible exception of CERAD score. Individuals with more adaptive personality traits gained more on global cognitive scores during a 12-month training intervention.

IntroductionPre-eclampsia, a multisystem disorder in pregnancy, is one of the most common causes of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. However, we lack methods for objective assessment of organ function in pre-eclampsia and predictors of organ impairment during and after pre-eclampsia. The women’s and their partners’ experiences of pre-eclampsia have not been studied in detail. To phenotype different subtypes of the disorder is of importance for prediction, prevention, surveillance, treatment and follow-up of pre-eclampsia.The aim of this study is to set up a multicentre database and biobank for pre-eclampsia in order to contribute to a safer and more individualised treatment and care.Methods and analysisThis is a multicentre cohort study. Prospectively recruited pregnant women ≥18 years, diagnosed with pre-eclampsia presenting at Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Uppsala University Hospital and at Södra Älvsborgs Hospital, Sweden, as well as normotensive controls are eligible for participation. At inclusion and at 1-year follow-up, the participants donate biosamples that are stored in a biobank and they are also asked to participate in various organ-specific evaluations. In addition, questionnaires and interviews regarding the women’s and partner’s experiences are distributed at follow-up.Ethics and disseminationBy creating a database and biobank, we will provide the means to explore the disorder in a broader sense and allow clinical and laboratory discoveries that can be translated to clinical trials aiming at improved care of women with pre-eclampsia. Further, to evaluate experiences and the psychological impact of being affected by pre-eclampsia can improve the care of pregnant women and their partners. In case of incidental pathological findings during examinations performed, they will be handled in accordance with clinical routine. Data are stored in a secure online database. Biobank samples are identified through the women’s personal identification number and pseudonymised after identification in the biobank before analysis.This study was approved by the regional ethical review board in Gothenburg on 28 December 2018 (approval number 955-18) and by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority on 27 February 2019 (approval number 2019-00309).Results from the study will be published in international peer-reviewed journals.Trial registration numberISRCTN13060768

Background:Subjective memory complaints (SMCs) may be the first sign of cognitive decline in aging. Objective:To examine whether SMCs reported by oneself and informant predict cognitive change over 2 years among at-risk elderly people, and to determine the relationship of different types of SMCs (prospective and retrospective memory complaints) and change in cognitive function. Methods:This investigation is part of the FINGER project, which is a multicenter randomized controlled trial aiming at preventing cognitive decline in cognitively healthy older adults with increased risk of dementia. A subsample of 303 control-group participants (aged 60–80 years) and their informants (n = 261) rated the frequency of SMCs, using the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ). Cognitive performance was measured at baseline and at 1- and 2-year follow-up visits using a neuropsychological test battery. Results:Participants who reported more SMCs improved less in global cognition, executive function, and memory during the subsequent 2 years in the fully-adjusted analyses. Self-reported retrospective memory problems predicted less improvement in all cognitive domains, whereas prospective memory problems did not. Informant-reported memory problems were not linked to subsequent change in cognition. Conclusion:Our results indicate that self-reported SMCs, measured with PRMQ, predict future cognitive change in several cognitive domains. By contrast, reports by informants were not linked to changes in cognition. Among cognitively healthy at-risk elderly individuals, the persons themselves observe more easily problems relevant for their future cognitive trajectories than their informants.

BackgroundDance as a treatment to support physical, cognitive and emotional functioning, has gained increased acceptance as a healthcare intervention for people with Parkinson's Disease (PD). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has been far reaching with devastating effects for at-risk populations. To find alternative and safe treatment delivery options during the pandemic has been of utmost importance. The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to evaluate the feasibility and the experience of digital dance for people with PD (Dance for PD©) and to examine change in self-reported quality of life, psychological health, subjective cognitive complaints and mental fatigue.Methods23 participants with PD (mean age 70) partook in 10-h weekly digital Dance for PD sessions. Feasibility outcome measures were assessed at post-test. Web-based questionnaires examining quality of life, subjective memory complaints, depression, anxiety and mental fatigue were administered at pre- and post-test. Moreover, nine participants partook in focus group discussions at post-test.ResultsThe results showed an acceptable feasibility to home-based digital Dance for PD, where 86% of the dance classes were completed, only minor negative side effects were reported (i.e., sore joints), and all experienced the dance classes as motivating and safe to do at home. The majority also reported positive effects on mood and physical functioning. The results from the questionnaires showed significant improvements in depressive symptoms (p = 0.006) and quality of life (p < 0.001) at post-test. In the focus groups, participants indicated that digital dance was a beneficial and enjoyable activity with a strong added value during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, they experienced that digital dance missed some important elements of live dance.ConclusionsThis study showed that digital Dance for PD is feasible and holds promise as a viable and safe method to keep people with PD dancing even when physical meetings are not possible. Beyond the pandemic, digital dance could be applied to a wide variety of patient groups including rural populations and patients for whom transportation may not be feasible for practical or financial reasons.Trial RegistrationRetrospectively registered at ClinicalTrials.gov on 25/06/2021 with the following registration number: NCT04942392.

This chapter provides an overview of the efforts that have been undertaken to ameliorate decline in cognitive functions in healthy older adults through practice and training with a particular focus on working memory and its processes. A wealth of evidence has shown that aging is associated with decline in various cognitive abilities. For decades, cognitive aging research has focused on explaining age-related cognitive decline with less emphasis on how to support the aging mind and brain. It has not been until quite recently that more focused attempts to train working memory have become the very topic of cognitive training for both young and old adults. The dual-task training protocol used in this research has varied slightly between studies but generally consists of two tasks performed concurrently such as a tracing task combined with an alphabet-arithmetic task or letter discrimination combined with tone discrimination.

In Parkinson’s disease (PD), the fronto-striatal network is involved in motor and cognitive symptoms. Working memory (WM) updating training engages this network in healthy populations, as observed by improved cognitive performance and increased striatal BOLD signal. This two-part study aimed to assess the feasibility of WM updating training in PD and measure change in cognition, movement and functional brain response in one individual with PD after WM updating training. A feasibility and single-subject (FL) study were performed in which patients with PD completed computerized WM updating training. The outcome measures were the pre-post changes in criterion and transfer cognitive tests; cognitive complaints; psychological health; movement kinematics; and task-related BOLD signal. Participants in the feasibility study showed improvements on the criterion tests at post-test. FL displayed the largest improvements on the criterion tests and smaller improvements on transfer tests. Furthermore, FL reported improved cognitive performance in everyday life. A shorter onset latency and smoother upper-limb goal-directed movements were measured at post-test, as well as increased activation within the striatum and decreased activation throughout the fronto-parietal WM network. This two-part study demonstrated that WM updating training is feasible to complete for PD patients and that change occurred in FL at post-test in the domains of cognition, movement and functional brain response.

Background Cognitive decline and dementia are common in Parkinson’s disease (PD). Cognitive deficits have been linked to the depletion of dopamine in the nigrostriatal pathway, but pharmacological treatments for PD have little evidence of improving or delaying cognitive decline. Therefore, exploring non-pharmacological treatment options is important. There have been some promising results of cognitive training interventions in PD, especially for improvements in working memory and executive functions. Yet, existing studies are often underpowered, lacking appropriate control condition, long term follow-up, a thorough description of the intervention and characteristics of the participants. Working memory updating training has previously shown to increase striatal activation in healthy young and old participants as well as dopaminergic neurotransmission in healthy young participants. In the light of dopamine dysfunction in PD, with negative effects on both motor and cognitive functions it is of interest to study if an impaired striatal system can be responsive to a non-invasive, non-pharmacological intervention. Methods and design The iPARK trial is a double-blinded, randomized controlled trial with a parallel-group design that aims to recruit 80 patients with PD (during the period 02/2017–02/2023). Included patients need to have PD, Hoehn and Yahr staging I-III, be between 45 to 75 years of age and not have a diagnosis of dementia. All patients will undergo 30 sessions (6–8 weeks) of web-based cognitive training performed from home. The target intervention is a process-based training program targeting working memory updating. The placebo program is a low dose short-term memory program. A battery of neuropsychological tests and questionnaires will be performed before training, directly after training, and 16 weeks after training. Discussion We expect that the iPARK trial will provide novel and clinically useful information on whether updating training is an effective cognitive training paradigm in PD. Further, it will hopefully contribute to a better understanding of cognitive function in PD and provide answers regarding cognitive plasticity as well as determining critical factors for a responsive striatal system. Trial registration Clinicaltrials.gov registry number: NCT03680170, registry name: “Cognitive Training in Parkinson’s Disease: the iPARK study”, retrospectively registered on the 21st of September 2018. The inclusion of the first participant was the 1st of February 2017.

Objectives:Subjective memory complaints (SMCs) are among the key concerns in the elderly, but their role in detecting objective cognitive problems is unclear. The aim of this study was to clarify the association between SMCs (both prospective and retrospective memory complaints) and neuropsychological test performance in older adults at risk of cognitive decline.Methods:This investigation is part of the FINGER project, a multicenter randomized controlled trial aiming at preventing cognitive decline in high-risk individuals. The cognitive assessment of participants was conducted at baseline using a modified neuropsychological test battery (NTB). SMCs were evaluated with the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) in a sub-sample of 560 participants (mean age, 69.9 years).Results:Having more prospective SMCs was associated with slower processing speed, but not with other NTB domains. Retrospective SMCs were linked to poorer function on NTB total score, processing speed, and memory. Executive function domain was not associated with any PRMQ ratings. Depressive symptoms and poor quality of life diluted the observed associations for NTB total score and memory. However, the association between PRMQ and processing speed remained even after full adjustments.Conclusions:Our results indicate that self-reported memory problems, measured with PRMQ, are associated with objectively measured cognitive performance. Such complaints in healthy elderly people also seem to reflect reduced mental tempo, rather than memory deficits. Slowing of processing speed may thus be negatively related to memory self-efficacy. It is also important to consider affective factors among those who report memory problems. (JINS, 2018,24, 1099–1109)

In adolescence, antisocial behaviors increase in prevalence, an occurrence that has been related to the parallel increase of impulsive behaviors. However, impulsivity is a conglomerate of unidimensional impulsigenic traits, divided into aspects of behavioral dyscontrol and sensation seeking. In the present study, we examine how these traits differ between interned youth and an aged-matched control group, and how they relate to executive functioning. Results indicate that impulsigenic traits related to behavioral dyscontrol, but not sensation seeking, are more pronounced in interned adolescents. Also, executive functioning was predictive of lack of premeditation, a trait specifically related to antisocial behavior. One implication of this is that interventions improving executive functioning could be beneficial in the rehabilitation of interned adolescents with impulsivity-related problems.

Introduction: Multidomain interventions, targeting multiple risk factors simultaneously, could be effective dementia prevention strategies, but may be burdensome and not universally acceptable. Methods: We studied adherence rates and predictors in the Finnish Geriatric Intervevntion Study to Prevent Cognitive Impairment and Disability and Multidomain Alzheimer Preventive Trial prevention trials, for all intervention components (separately and simultaneously). Finnish Geriatric Intervevntion Study to Prevent Cognitive Impairment and Disability participants received a 2-year multidomain lifestyle intervention (physical training, cognitive training, nutritional counseling, and cardiovascular monitoring). Multidomain Alzheimer Preventive Trial participants received a 3-year multidomain lifestyle intervention (cognitive training, physical activity counseling, and nutritional counseling) with either an omega-3 supplement or placebo. Results: Adherence decreased with increasing intervention complexity and intensity: it was highest for cardiovascular monitoring, nutritional counseling, and the omega-3 supplement, and lowest for unsupervised computer-based cognitive training. The most consistent baseline predictors of adherence were smoking and depressive symptoms. Discussion: Reducing participant burden, while ensuring that technological tools are suitable for older individuals, maintaining face-to-face contacts, and taking into account participant characteristics may increase adherence in future trials. (C) 2019 the Alzheimer's Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

This study address three questions: (a) Do interned adolescents exhibit general or specific deficits in the core executive functions, as compared to an age-matched control group? (b) Do interned ad ...

IntroductionCognitive impairment is recognised as an important non-motor symptom in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and there is a need for evidence-based non-pharmacological interventions that may prevent or slow cognitive decline in this patient group. One such intervention is computerised cognitive training (CCT), which has shown efficacious for cognition across older adult populations. This systematic review aims to investigate the efficacy of CCT across cognitive, psychosocial and functional domains for people with PD and examine study and intervention design factors that could moderate CCT effects on cognition.Methods and analysisRandomised controlled trials investigating the effects of CCT in patients with PD without dementia, on cognitive, psychosocial or functional outcomes, will be included. The primary outcome is overall cognitive function. Secondary outcomes are domain-specific cognitive function, psychosocial functioning and functional abilities. We systematically searched MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO through 14 May 2020 to identify relevant literature. Risk of bias will be assessed using the revised Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. Effect sizes will be calculated as standardised mean difference of baseline to postintervention change (Hedges’ g) with 95% CI for each eligible outcome measure. Pooling of outcomes across studies will be conducted using random-effects models, accounting for dependency structure of effect sizes within studies. Heterogeneity will be assessed using τ2 and I2 statistic. Potential moderators, based on key study and intervention design factors, will be investigated using mixed-effects meta-regression models.Ethics and disseminationNo ethical approval is required. The findings will be disseminated in a peer-reviewed scientific journal.PROSPERO registration numberCRD42020185386.

The possibilities of computer-based cognitive training (CCT) in postponing the onset of dementia are currently unclear, but promising. Our aim is to investigate older adults ' adherence to a long-term CCT program, and which participant characteristics are associated with adherence to the CCT. This study was part of the Finnish Geriatric Intervention Study to Prevent Cognitive Impairment and Disability (FINGER). Participants were 60-77-year-old individuals with increased dementia risk, recruited from previous population-based studies. The participants included in this study (n = 631) had been randomized to receive a multi-domain lifestyle intervention, including CCT. The measure of adherence was the number of completed CCT sessions (max = 144) as continuous measure. Due to a substantial proportion of participants with 0 sessions, the zero inflated negative binomial regression analyses were used to enable assessment of both predictors of starting the training and predictors of completing a higher number of training sessions. Several cognitive, demographic, lifestyle, and health-related variables were examined as potential predictors of adherence to CCT. Altogether, 63% of the participants participated in the CCT at least once, 20% completed at least half of the training, and 12% completed all sessions. Previous experience with computers, being married or cohabiting, better memory performance, and positive expectations toward the study predicted greater odds for starting CCT. Previous computer use was the only factor associated with a greater number of training sessions completed. Our study shows that there is a large variation in adherence to a long-lasting CCT among older adults with an increased risk of dementia. The results indicate that encouraging computer use, and taking into account the level of cognitive functioning, may help boost adherence to CCT.

It is important to understand how people with exhaustion disorder (ED) perceive interventions aiming to facilitate cognitive functioning. Therefore, the overall aim of this study was to explore experiences from persons with ED after participating in a 12-week intervention of either computerized cognitive training or aerobic training. Both interventions were performed in addition to a multimodal rehabilitation programme. Thirteen participants, 11 women and 2 men, were interviewed about pros and cons with participating in the training. The interviews were analysed with Qualitative Content Analysis. The analyses resulted in the theme hopeful struggling for health and the categories support, motivation and sensations. It was hard work recovering from ED. Support from others who are in the same situation, family members, and technology and routines for the training were strongly emphasized as beneficial for recovery. Timing, i.e., matching activities to the rehabilitation programme, getting feedback and perceiving joy in the training were important for motivation. Participants in both interventions experienced positive sensations with improved memory performance, everyday life functioning and increased faith in the prospect of recovery. However, it is important to consider various aspects of support and motivation in both computerized cognitive training and aerobic training to enable participants to pursue their participation.

Summary Background Modifiable vascular and lifestyle-related risk factors have been associated with dementia risk in observational studies. In the Finnish Geriatric Intervention Study to Prevent Cognitive Impairment and Disability (FINGER), a proof-of-concept randomised controlled trial, we aimed to assess a multidomain approach to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people from the general population. Methods In a double-blind randomised controlled trial we enrolled individuals aged 60–77 years recruited from previous national surveys. Inclusion criteria were CAIDE (Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Aging and Dementia) Dementia Risk Score of at least 6 points and cognition at mean level or slightly lower than expected for age. We randomly assigned participants in a 1:1 ratio to a 2 year multidomain intervention (diet, exercise, cognitive training, vascular risk monitoring), or a control group (general health advice). Computer-generated allocation was done in blocks of four (two individuals randomly allocated to each group) at each site. Group allocation was not actively disclosed to participants and outcome assessors were masked to group allocation. The primary outcome was change in cognition as measured through comprehensive neuropsychological test battery (NTB) Z score. Analysis was by modified intention to treat (all participants with at least one post-baseline observation). This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01041989. Findings Between Sept 7, 2009, and Nov 24, 2011, we screened 2654 individuals and randomly assigned 1260 to the intervention group (n=631) or control group (n=629). 591 (94%) participants in the intervention group and 599 (95%) in the control group had at least one post-baseline assessment and were included in the modified intention-to-treat analysis. Estimated mean change in NTB total Z score at 2 years was 0·20 (SE 0·02, SD 0·51) in the intervention group and 0·16 (0·01, 0·51) in the control group. Between-group difference in the change of NTB total score per year was 0·022 (95% CI 0·002–0·042, p=0·030). 153 (12%) individuals dropped out overall. Adverse events occurred in 46 (7%) participants in the intervention group compared with six (1%) participants in the control group; the most common adverse event was musculoskeletal pain (32 [5%] individuals for intervention vs no individuals for control). Interpretation Findings from this large, long-term, randomised controlled trial suggest that a multidomain intervention could improve or maintain cognitive functioning in at-risk elderly people from the general population. Funding Academy of Finland, La Carita Foundation, Alzheimer Association, Alzheimer's Research and Prevention Foundation, Juho Vainio Foundation, Novo Nordisk Foundation, Finnish Social Insurance Institution, Ministry of Education and Culture, Salama bint Hamdan Al Nahyan Foundation, Axa Research Fund, EVO funding for University Hospitals of Kuopio, Oulu, and Turku and for Seinajoki Central Hospital and Oulu City Hospital, Swedish Research Council, Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare, and af Jochnick Foundation.

Stress-related exhaustion has been associated with selective and enduring cognitive impairments. However, little is known about how to address cognitive deficits in stress rehabilitation and how this influences stress recovery over time. The aim of this open-label, parallel randomized controlled trial (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03073772) was to investigate the long-term effects of 12 weeks cognitive or aerobic training on cognitive function, psychological health, and work ability for patients diagnosed with exhaustion disorder (ED). One-hundred-and-thirty-two patients (111 women) participating in multimodal stress rehabilitation were randomized to receive additional cognitive training (n = 44), additional aerobic training (n = 47), or no additional training (n = 41). Treatment effects were assessed before, immediately after and one-year post intervention. The primary outcome was global cognitive function. Secondary outcomes included domain-specific cognition, self-reported burnout, depression, anxiety, fatigue and work ability, aerobic capacity, and sick-leave levels. Intention-to-treat analysis revealed a small but lasting improvement in global cognitive functioning for the cognitive training group, paralleled by a large improvement on a trained updating task. The aerobic training group showed improvements in aerobic capacity and episodic memory immediately after training, but no long-term benefits. General improvements in psychological health and work ability were observed, with no difference between interventional groups. Our findings suggest that cognitive training may be a viable method to address cognitive impairments for patients with ED, whereas the effects of aerobic exercise on cognition may be more limited when performed during a restricted time period. The implications for clinical practice in supporting patients with ED to adhere to treatment are discussed.

Background Patients with stress-related exhaustion suffer from cognitive impairments, which often remain after psychological treatment or work place interventions. It is important to find effective treatments that can address this problem. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects on cognitive performance and psychological variables of a 12-week aerobic training program performed at a moderate-vigorous intensity for patients with exhaustion disorder who participated in a multimodal rehabilitation program. Methods In this open-label, parallel, randomized and controlled trial, 88 patients diagnosed with exhaustion disorder participated in a 24-week multimodal rehabilitation program. After 12 weeks in the program the patients were randomized to either a 12-week aerobic training intervention or to a control group with no additional training. Primary outcome measure was cognitive function, and secondary outcome measures were psychological health variables and aerobic capacity. Results In total, 51% patients in the aerobic training group and 78% patients in the control group completed the intervention period. The aerobic training group significantly improved in maximal oxygen uptake and episodic memory performance. No additional improvement in burnout, depression or anxiety was observed in the aerobic group compared with controls. Conclusion Aerobic training at a moderate-vigorous intensity within a multimodal rehabilitation program for patients with exhaustion disorder facilitated episodic memory. A future challenge would be the clinical implementation of aerobic training and methods to increase feasibility in this patient group. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03073772 . Retrospectively registered 21 February 2017.

The 2-year Finnish Geriatric Intervention Study to Prevent Cognitive Impairment and Disability (FINGER) multidomain lifestyle intervention trial (NCT01041989) demonstrated beneficial effects on cognition. We investigated whether sociodemographics, socioeconomic status, baseline cognition, or cardiovascular factors influenced intervention effects on cognition.The FINGER recruited 1260 people from the general Finnish population (60-77 years, at risk for dementia). Participants were randomized 1:1 to multidomain intervention (diet, exercise, cognition, and vascular risk management) and regular health advice. Primary outcome was change in cognition (Neuropsychological Test Battery z-score). Prespecified analyses to investigate whether participants' characteristics modified response to intervention were carried out using mixed-model repeated-measures analyses.Sociodemographics (sex, age, and education), socioeconomic status (income), cognition (Mini-Mental State Examination), cardiovascular factors (body mass index, blood pressure, cholesterol, fasting glucose, and overall cardiovascular risk), and cardiovascular comorbidity did not modify response to intervention (P-values for interaction.05).The FINGER intervention was beneficial regardless of participants' characteristics and can thus be implemented in a large elderly population at increased risk for dementia.

Highlights • Structural correlates of mental fatigue investigated in stress-related exhaustion. • Patients were divided into high and low-moderate mental fatigue group. • Patients with high mental fatigue had smaller caudate and putamen volumes. • No significant differences in cortical thickness between the groups. • Mental fatigue mediated the relationship between caudate volume and working memory., Emerging evidence suggests that mental fatigue is a central component of the cognitive and clinical characteristics of stress-related exhaustion disorder (ED). Yet, the underlying mechanisms of mental fatigue in this patient group are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate cortical and subcortical structural neural correlates of mental fatigue in patients with ED, and to explore the association between mental fatigue and cognitive functioning. Fifty-five patients with clinical ED diagnosis underwent magnetic resonance imaging. Mental fatigue was assessed using the Concentration subscale from the Checklist Individual Strength. Patients with high levels of mental fatigue (n = 30) had smaller caudate and putamen volumes compared to patients with low-moderate levels of mental fatigue (n = 25). No statistically significant differences in cortical thickness were observed between the groups. Mediation analysis showed that mental fatigue mediated the relationship between caudate volume and working memory; specifically, smaller caudate volume was associated with higher level of mental fatigue and mental fatigue was positively associated with working memory performance. Our findings demonstrate that the structural integrity of the striatum is of relevance for the subjective perception of mental fatigue in ED, while also highlighting the complex relationship between mental fatigue, cognitive performance and its neural underpinnings.

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the association between burnout and neural activation during working memory processing in patients with stress-related exhaustion. Additionally, we investigated the neural effects of cognitive training as part of stress rehabilitation. Fifty-five patients with clinical diagnosis of exhaustion disorder were administered the n-back task during fMRI scanning at baseline. Ten patients completed a 12-week cognitive training intervention, as an addition to stress rehabilitation. Eleven patients served as a treatment-as-usual control group. At baseline, burnout level was positively associated with neural activation in the rostral prefrontal cortex, the posterior parietal cortex and the striatum, primarily in the 2-back condition. Following stress rehabilitation, the striatal activity decreased as a function of improved levels of burnout. No significant association between burnout level and working memory performance was found, however, our findings indicate that frontostriatal neural responses related to working memory were modulated by burnout severity. We suggest that patients with high levels of burnout need to recruit additional cognitive resources to uphold task performance. Following cognitive training, increased neural activation was observed during 3-back in working memory-related regions, including the striatum, however, low sample size limits any firm conclusions.

Our ability to flexibly shift between tasks or task sets declines in older age. As this decline may have adverse effects on everyday life of elderly people, it is of interest to study whether set shifting ability can be trained, and if training effects generalize to other cognitive tasks. Here, we report a randomized controlled trial where healthy older adults trained set shifting with three different set shifting tasks. The training group (n = 17) performed adaptive set shifting training for 5 weeks with three training sessions a week (45 min/session), while the active control group (n = 16) played three different computer games for the same period. Both groups underwent extensive pre- and post-testing and a 1-year follow-up. Compared to the controls, the training group showed significant improvements on the trained tasks. Evidence for near transfer in the training group was very limited, as it was seen only on overall accuracy on an untrained computerized set shifting task. No far transfer to other cognitive functions was observed. One year later, the training group was still better on the trained tasks but the single near transfer effect had vanished. The results suggest that computerized set shifting training in the elderly shows long-lasting effects on the trained tasks but very little benefit in terms of generalization.

Background Finnish Geriatric Intervention Study to Prevent Cognitive Impairment and Disability (FINGER) is a multi-center, randomized, controlled trial ongoing in Finland. Materials Participants (1200 individuals at risk of cognitive decline) are recruited from previous population-based non-intervention studies. Inclusion criteria are CAIDE Dementia Risk Score ≥6 and cognitive performance at the mean level or slightly lower than expected for age (but not substantial impairment) assessed with the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD) neuropsychological battery. The 2-year multidomain intervention consists of: nutritional guidance; exercise; cognitive training and social activity; and management of metabolic and vascular risk factors. Persons in the control group receive regular health advice. The primary outcome is cognitive performance as measured by the modified Neuropsychological Test Battery, Stroop test, and Trail Making Test. Main secondary outcomes are: dementia (after extended follow-up); disability; depressive symptoms; vascular risk factors and outcomes; quality of life; utilization of health resources; and neuroimaging measures. Results Screening began in September 2009 and was completed in December 2011. All 1200 persons are enrolled and the intervention is ongoing as planned. Baseline clinical characteristics indicate that several vascular risk factors and unhealthy lifestyle–related factors are present, creating a window of opportunity for prevention. The intervention will be completed during 2014. Conclusions The FINGER is at the forefront of international collaborative efforts to solve the clinical and public health problems of early identification of individuals at increased risk of late-life cognitive impairment, and of developing intervention strategies to prevent or delay the onset of cognitive impairment and dementia.

Working Memory Updating Training in Older Adults : Is Level of Performance After Training Related to Transfer?

IMPORTANCE: The role of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) epsilon 4 allele as an effect modifier in lifestyle interventions to prevent cognitive impairment is still unclear. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether ...

Several recent studies show that training can improve working memory (WM) performance. In this review, many issues related to WM training, such as neural basis, transfer effects, and age-related changes are addressed.We focus on our own studies investigating training on tasks taxing the executive updating function and discuss our findings in relation to results from other studies investigating training of the executive component of WM.The review confirms positive behavioral effects of training on working memory. The most common neural pattern following training is fronto-parietal activity decreases. Increases in sub-cortical areas are also frequently reported after training, and we suggest that such increases indicate changes in the underlying skill following training. Transfer effects are in general difficult to demonstrate. Some studies show that older adults increase their performance after WM training. However, transfer effects are small or nonexistent in old age.The main finding in this review is that sub-cortical areas seem to have a critical role in mediating transfer effects to untrained tasks after at least some forms of working memory training (such as updating).

This study identifies how persons with dementia and their caregiving spouses individually perceive their own, their spouse's and their mutual engagements in everyday activities. Fifty-two cohabiting spouses, half of whom were diagnosed with dementia, were interviewed. A qualitative constant comparative analysis was performed, identifying four major themes: perceived changes in activity engagements; consequences of experienced changes; dilemmas experienced by the caregivers; and management approaches to handle a changed everyday life. Each individual described their activities to include loss of social engagements and changes in the relationship. Dilemmas experienced by the caregivers included `interfering with the spouse's engagement or not' and `placing the spouse's or one's own needs first'. The caregiver management approaches identified included `taking over' or `encouraging initiative'; `lowering demands or avoiding problematic engagements'; and `managing through collaboration'. Findings provide insight into everyday engagements for persons with dementia and their caregivers, important to healthcare support providers.

The authors investigated immediate training gains, transfer effects, and 18-month maintenance after 5 weeks of computer-based training in updating of information in working memory in young and older subjects. Trained young and older adults improved significantly more than controls on the criterion task (letter memory), and these gains were maintained 18 months later. Transfer effects were in general limited and restricted to the young participants, who showed transfer to an untrained task that required updating (3-back). The findings demonstrate substantial and durable plasticity of executive functioning across adulthood and old age, although there appear to be age-related constraints in the ability to generalize the acquired updating skill.

Prior studies have examined the magnitude of training and transfer effects after process-based training in early and late adulthood. However, little is known about how long-lasting these effects are. Here we investigate the degree of stability of training gains and transfer effects in younger and older adults 18 months after completion of executive process training, tapping updating, inhibition, and shifting. From the original sample, 24 out of 30 older participants, and 19 out of 29 young adults, returned for follow-up assessment at which the criterion and transfer tests from pre- and post-test were re-administered. The results demonstrated stability of training gains in the updating criterion task (Letter Memory Running Span), and in a near transfer updating task (Number Memory Running Span) for both age groups. The young adults improved performance in two complex working memory tasks immediately after training. These transfer effects did not survive across time. Our results provide evidence that executive process training has its greatest effect on transfer tasks with a substantial process overlap with the trained tasks: only those effects are maintained over an 18 month period in both early and late adulthood.

Stress-related exhaustion has been linked to a pattern of selective cognitive impairments, mainly affecting executive functioning, attention and episodic memory. Little is known about potential treatments of these cognitive deficits. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a process-based cognitive training intervention, designed to target the specific cognitive impairments associated with stress-related exhaustion. To this end, patients diagnosed with exhaustion disorder (ED) were randomized to either a multimodal stress rehabilitation program with the addition of a process-based cognitive training intervention (training group, n = 27) or a treatment-as-usual control condition, consisting of multimodal stress rehabilitation with no additional training (control group, n = 32). Treatment effects were evaluated through an extensive cognitive test battery, assessing both near and far transfer effects, as well as self-report forms regarding subjective cognitive complaints and burnout levels. Results showed pronounced training-related improvements on the criterion updating task (p 0.001). Further, evidence was found of selective near transfer effects to updating (p = 0.01) and episodic memory (p = 0.04). Also, the trained group reported less subjective memory complaints (p = 0.02) and levels of burnout decreased for both groups, but more so for the trained group (p = 0.04), following the intervention. These findings suggest that process-based cognitive training may be a viable method to address the cognitive impairments associated with ED.

The study investigated the relationship between cognitive factors and gains in number recall following training in a number–consonant mnemonic in a sample of 112 older adults (M = 70.9 years). The cognitive factors examined included baseline episodic memory, working memory, processing speed, and verbal knowledge. In addition, predictors of maintenance of gains to a follow-up assessment, eight months later, were examined. Whereas working memory was a prominent predictor of baseline recall, the magnitude of gains in recall from pre- to post-test assessments were predicted by baseline episodic memory, processing speed, and verbal knowledge. Verbal knowledge was the only significant predictor of maintenance. Collectively, the results indicate the need to consider multiple factors to account for individual differences in memory plasticity. The potential contribution of additional factors to individual differences in memory plasticity is discussed.

Rate of forgetting is putatively invariant across individuals, sharing few associations with individual-differences variables known to influence encoding and retrieval. This classic topic in learning and memory was revisited using a novel statistical application, multilevel modeling, to examine whether (a) slopes of forgetting varied across individuals and (b) observed individual differences in forgetting shared systematic relations with adult age, learning speed, and cognitive ability. Participants (N = 136) received mnemonic training prior to memorizing 4-digit numbers to perfection, and retention was tested immediately after training and after 30 min, 24 hr, 7 weeks, and 8 months. Slower rate of learning to criterion, older age, and poorer cognitive performance predicted accelerated forgetting with associations most pronounced within 24 hr from baseline. Observed correlates of differential forgetting slopes are similar to those previously found to affect encoding, suggesting continuity rather than asymmetry of prediction for these memory processes.

The aim of this study was to identify the support caregivers provide by their own initiative when performing an everyday occupation together with their partner who has dementia. This is to identify what type of self-initiated caregiver support enhances or limits the performance of the person with dementia. Thirty cohabitating couples participated. One of the spouses in each couple was the primary caregiver for a partner with mild to moderate dementia. Observational data were collected in the participants' homes, where each couple was asked to prepare afternoon tea together. The performances were documented by video and supplementary field notes. Data were analyzed using a qualitative comparative approach. The results of the analyses identified two major themes related to support the caregivers provided: provision of a supportive working climate and provision of practical support. A third theme was related to negative aspects of caregiver support. The results of this study have implications for how occupational therapists and caregivers in dementia care can support and guide primary caregivers in their homes.

We examined maintenance effects following training in a self-generated strategy versus a mnemonic strategy, designed to improve recall of four-digit numbers in older adults. This was accomplished by reassessing participants from a previous study eight months after completion of training. A control group that received no training was also included. The results showed that both training groups maintained training-related gains in number recall performance eight months later in a criterion task providing cognitive support. However, when no support was provided, number recall performance for the mnemonic group dropped slightly whereas performance for the self-generated strategy group improved. The control group maintained performance across assessments. These data indicate the numerical memory training may result in long-term effects in older adults and that, under some conditions, practising one's own memory strategies may have advantages over mnemonic training in old age.

Background: Memory intervention research with older adults has primarily focused on immediate effects of training. Little is known about whether memory training can prevent forgetting of a learned material over time. Objective: The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of memory training on forgetting of numerical information in old age. In addition, the effect of speed of learning on forgetting rate was examined. Methods: Two training programs were employed contrasting a number-consonant mnemonic strategy with a self-generated strategy. A non-practice control group was also included. There were 20 participants in each group (age range = 60–83 years). Following completion of training, participants memorized six 4-digit numbers to perfection. Retention was tested after 30 min, 24 h, 7 weeks, and 8 months. Results: The three groups showed equal rates of forgetting across the first two follow-up assessments. A different picture emerged for the last two occasions, with the self-generated strategy group remembering more items relative to the two other groups. Moreover, participants reaching the criterion in few trials exhibited less forgetting than slow learners. Conclusions: These data indicate that self-generated strategy training may have advantages over learning a classical mnemonic for preventing long-term forgetting of numeric materials in old age.

There is a growing body of research on the modifiability of executive functions in different stages of life. Previous studies demonstrate robust training effects but limited transfer in younger and particularly in older adults. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether a theoretically derived intervention for executive functioning, addressing several basic processes (updating, shifting, and inhibition), can induce transfer effects in early and late adulthood. Fifty-nine healthy adults, 29 young and 30 older adults, were randomly assigned to either training or no-contact control groups. The training groups received 15 sessions of executive process training for about 45 min/session during 5 weeks. A test battery including a criterion task and near, intermediate, and far transfer tasks was administered before and after training. Results showed pronounced age-equivalent gains on the criterion task. Near transfer was seen to non-trained updating and inhibition tasks for the young and older trained participants. However, only the young adults showed intermediate transfer to two complex working memory tasks. No far transfer effects were seen for either age group. These findings provide additional evidence for age-related constraints in the ability to generalize acquired executive skills, and specifically show that training of multiple executive processes is not sufficient to foster transfer beyond the very near in older adults.

Recent epidemiological studies have indicated numerous associations between vascular and lifestyle related risk factors and incident dementia. However, evidence from randomised controlled trials (RCT) showing effectiveness of interventions aimed at these risk factors in preventing or postponing dementia onset is still lacking. Three large RDT on multi-component interventions to prevent dementia (preDIVA, FINGER. MAPT) have been initiated in Europe to address these issues. Irrespective of some methodological differences, all three studies target cardiovascular and lifestyle related risk factors. Collaboration within the newly founded 'European Dementia Prevention Initiative' (EDPI) will allow for a comprehensive exploration of optimal target population, intervention and outcome measures, which are currently unknown. Combining data of the ongoing studies and running simulation analyses will facilitate determining the optimal design including accurate sample-size calculations for future multi-national clinical trials on dementia prevention. Interventions aiming at dementia prevention should be pragmatic and easy to implement on a large scale in different health care systems, without generating high additional costs or burden on participants or physicians. As the optimal age for intervention precedes the optimal age for outcome assessment, traditional trial designs might lead to suboptimal timing of either of the two. Separation of intervention and outcome assessment in time is a potential solution, but requires studies with very long follow-up. International collaboration of research groups with experience in dementia prevention studies and well-organised logistics for these major projects is pivotal to success for future large-scale dementia prevention studies. Founding of EDPI is an important first step in this direction. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

This study compared the effects of a multifactorial memory training program (encoding operations, attentional functions, and relaxation) with those of a unifactorial program (encoding operations) on memory performance in older adults. A control group received no training. Results showed that the multifactorial group improved performance following training in free recall of concrete words and maintained that improvement six months after completion of training. The unifactorial group showed less improvement following training on free recall of concrete words and also maintained the improvement six months later. All three groups improved slightly in recall of abstract words across time. Finally, none of the groups showed any improvement in digit span and the Benton visual retention test. These patterns of data indicate that multifactorial training may result in larger gains immediately after training compared with unifactorial training but that both programs lead to maintenance of improvement. Furthermore, t...