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Women and girls represent only a minority in the penitentiary system and in forensic mental health care. About 6%–10% of both prison and forensic psychiatric populations in Western countries comprise women (see for the most recent offi cial statistics in the UK w ww.gov. uk/government, in Canada w ww.statcan.gc.ca, and in the US w ww.bjs.gov) . However, there seems to be widespread agreement that in the past 20 years female offending has been on the rise, especially violent offending and particularly among young women ( Miller, Malone, and Dodge, 2010; M oretti, Catchpole, and Odgers, 2005) . Overall, a disproportionate growth of females entering the criminal justice system and forensic mental health care has been observed in many countries (for reviews, see Nicholls, Cruise, Greig, and Hinz, 2015; Odgers, Moretti, and Reppucci, 2005 ; Walmsley, 2015) . In addition, it should be noted that the ‘dark number’ for women is suggested to be bigger than for men. Offi cial prevalence rates of female offending might constitute an underestimation as women usually commit less reported offences, for example, domestic violence (N icholls, Greaves, Greig, and Moretti, 2015) . Furthermore, it has been found that – if apprehended – girls and women are treated more leniently by professionals and the criminal justice system. Generally, they receive lower prison sentences and are more often admitted to civil psychiatric institutions instead of receiving a prison sentence or mandatory forensic treatment after committing violence ( Javdani, Sadeh, and Verona, 2011 ; Jeffries, Fletcher, and Newbold, 2003 ). Hence, although female offenders compared to male offenders are a minority, female violence is a substantial problem that deserves more attention. Our understanding of female offenders is hindered by the general paucity of theoretical and empirical investigations of this population. In order to improve current treatment and assessment practices, our knowledge and understanding of female offenders should be enlarged and optimised (d e Vogel and Nicholls, 2016 ).

This chapter considers prison gangs by outlining definitional challenges that concern this social phenomenon before examining the importance of accounting for the specifics of prison environments. It presents a social eco-system approach to understanding prison gangs and, in doing so, accounts for theories of importation, strain and deprivation, incorporating these into a proposed Gang Social-Ecosystem Model. The chapter draws to a close by challenging the more pejorative approach to defining and understanding gangs, particularly in prisons. The development of prison gangs remains poorly understood, with research limited, descriptive and largely atheoretical. There is a need to avoid focus on myths concerning development and to concentrate more on the specifics of the environment and the role of direct importation and adaption/deprivation. There is increasing acceptance, both empirically and theoretically, that prisoners become involved in challenging behaviours because of an interaction between what they bring with them to the environment and the environment itself.

A city Resource Directory (CRD) for the smart video surveillance system offers enhanced security for citizens. With a growing need for public security and safety, video enabled devices are a common sight in private and public locations around the world. They are however isolated systems, and unless owned by the government, there is no means to intelligently confirm their existence or benefit from their activities, at the public level. We propose a citywide surveillance directory system to support and facilitate the cataloguing, accessing, managing and administration of the video surveillance networks. To demonstrate the our work, we developed a simulation project in which resource directories designated for specific cities were used to administer local surveillance systems and we demonstrate how a surveillance system registers with only the appropriate CRD in its local city. We demonstrated how our solution manages failed nodes during the registration process of cameras joining the CRD.

The presentation covers some history on lasers, then goes on to describe the the USA Airborne Laser Testbed and its Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser (COIL). The significance of laser modes for beam propagation is explained. Fibre lasers and their applications and construction is described. The US Navy 33kW fibre laser is reported, then the Lockheed Martin 30kW and 60kW systems are described; UK Dragonfire is reported followed by the US Textron 150kW liquid laser. Some conclusions are drawn.

The quantum Fourier transform (QFT);Similarities and differences of coherent optical FFT to the QFT. Grover’s search algorithm implemented with a coherent optical correlator. Quantum algorithms requiring bit entanglement -Shor’s algorithm for large number factorisation. Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) pixels placed in a binary superposition state. Addressed with an “interaction free” measurement. Allows exponential increase in processing power. Quantum search algorithm for a decryption problem based on superposition state of coherent wavefront.

The hidden Markov model (HMM) is commonly employed in automatic speech recognition (ASR). The HMM has been shown to have a good performance in many applications, although it has some well-known limitations in modelling speech. Therefore, the standard HMM topology has been modified in a variety of ways to reduce errors, including factorization of the HMM into multiple-streams. However, the gap between the theoretical representation of speech and its acoustic representation can be further reduced. This paper describes a new method of correcting the HMM based on matching two dimensional templates of word time-frequency patterns to assist in low level speech recognition. This is shown to be a promising method to enhance speech recognition performance.

Some laser history;\ud Airborne Laser Testbed & Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser (COIL);\ud Laser modes and beam propagation;\ud Fibre lasers and applications;\ud US Navy Laser system – NRL 33kW fibre laser;\ud Lockheed Martin 30kW fibre laser;\ud Conclusions

Cities are in a constant state of evolution, and made up of many different system: energy, transport, healthcare, security, water treatment and so on. There is a significant push by governments around the world to integrate these services using the internet. This presentation looks at some history, current progress and opportunities.

The presentation gives a partial summary of some of the research conducted by the Industrial Informatics & Signal Processing Research Group over the last 20 years. This was to celebrate 50 years of Engineering at Sussex University; many of our past graduates attended. The conference was a great success and culminated in a very enjoyable dinner with all the delegates and presenters.

Caterpillars in their various forms: size, shape, and colour cause significant harm to crops and humans. This paper offers a solution for the detection and control of caterpillars through the use of a sustainable pest control system that does not require the application of chemical pesticides, which damage human health and destroy the naturally beneficial insects within the environment. The proposed system is capable of controlling 80% of the population of caterpillars in less than 65 days by deploying a controlled number of larval parasitoid wasps (Cotesia Flavipes, Cameron) into the crop environment. This is made possible by using a continuous time model of the interaction between the caterpillar and the Cotesia Flavipes (Cameron) wasps using a set of simultaneous, non-linear, ordinary differential equations incorporating natural death rates based on the Weibull probability distribution function. A negative binomial distribution is used to model the efficiency and the probability that the wasp will find and parasitize a host larva. The caterpillar is presented in all its life-cycle stages of: egg, larva, pupa and adult and the Cotesia Flavipes (Cameron) wasp is present as an adult larval parasitoid. Biological control modelling is used to estimate the quantity of the Cotesia Flavipes (Cameron) wasps that should be introduced into the caterpillar infested environment to suppress its population density to an economically acceptable level within a prescribed number of days.\ud Keywords

There is a large amount of space debris in the size range of 1 to 10 cm that is orbiting the Earth at a very high velocity which could do tremendous damage to any space mission if it were to collide. This orbital debris has been generated from collision events between objects and fragmentations of objects in Earth orbits. The problem is that the amount of space debris is increasing exponentially with every major collision in space. To limit the probability of this happening, the rate of growth of space debris in orbit is being reduced through various design techniques employed in new space missions. However, the orbital debris already in space will require to be mitigated as well because in some of the bands, such as Low Earth Orbit (LEO), the density of space debris is very high. It is posing a threat to any operational satellite in orbit and the safety of spacecraft flights LEO is rather urgent.\ud \ud The technique of using high power pulsed lasers on the ground has been viewed as the most feasible method to mitigate small space junk in the LEO band. It is one of the most viable solutions to mitigate the existing space debris in LEO. However, in order to design an effective orbital debris removal technique, the first logical step would be to gather as much information as possible on space debris that is known to exist within the orbital band of interest, like the two-line element of the space debris and its materials. This will help assess the design of the laser beam system and help give a more accurate picture of this de-orbiting strategy.\ud \ud The objective of this poster is to provide a summary of the developed novel techniques for this de-orbiting model. It also presents the calculation and simulation of the required power that is necessary for the laser beam in order to slow down the orbital velocity of the space debris and also reduce its perigee. Reducing the space debris altitude by the amount necessary will significantly reduce its lifetime in Earth orbit and eventually cause it to re-enter the atmosphere where it will burn up.

Scoliid and Voria Tachinidae parasitoid wasps are shown to be able to control the population of the Taro Scarab beetle (Papuanauninodis, Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae using a newly created continuous-time simulation model based on non-linear ordinary differential equations that track the populations of the beetle’s life cycle stages: egg, larva, pupa, adult and the populations of the two parasitoid wasps. Due to the fact that the scarab beetles are, relatively speaking, long lived it is challenging to drive down the adult population below the environmental carrying capacity. Mortality and predator/prey capture rates are modelled using the Weibull and Pascal probability distribution functions, respectively. We suggest the use of a virus or fungi to drive down the population of the adult beetles, the ambition being to avoid the use of pesticides so as to produce higher quality food that doesn’t damage human health via chemical residues.

As Africa is lagging behind in global IT developments this lecture looks at the: \ud \ud Challenges & cost of the Internet in Nigeria\ud Global Fibre Optic Backbone\ud African Sub-sea Optical Fibre Backbone\ud Satellite Option\ud Satellite & Wireless Systems\ud DWDM in Tanzania

Despite the widespread use of insecticides, community engagement programmes and preventive measures mosquito borne diseases are growing and new tools to prevent the spread of disease are urgently needed. An alternative control measure for the eradication of Anopheles mosquitoes is suggested by the use of a Sustainable Control Model, which demonstrates the capability of Odonata, a natural beneficial predator, to exercise control over Anopheles mosquitoes in less than 140 days.

Optical structures to implement the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms for discretely sampled data sets are considered. In particular, the decomposition of the FFT algorithm into the basic Butterfly operations is described, as this allows the algorithm to be fully implemented by the successive coherent addition and subtraction of two wavefronts (the subtraction being performed after one has been appropriately phase shifted), so facilitating a simple and robust hardware implementation based on waveguided hybrid devices as employed in coherent optical detection modules. Further, a comparison is made to the optical structures proposed for the optical implementation of the quantum Fourier transform and they are shown to be very similar.

Plant pest recognition and detection is vital for food security, quality of life and a stable agricultural economy. This research demonstrates the combination of the k-means clustering algorithm and the correspondence filter to achieve pest detection and recognition. The detection of the dataset is achieved by partitioning the data space into Voronoi cells, which tends to find clusters of comparable spatial extents, thereby separating the objects (pests) from the background (pest habitat). The detection is established by extracting the variant distinctive attributes between the pest and its habitat (leaf, stem) and using the correspondence filter to identify the plant pests to obtain correlation peak values for different datasets. This work further establishes that the recognition probability from the pest image is directly proportional to the height of the output signal and inversely proportional to the viewing angles, which further confirmed that the recognition of plant pests is a function of their position and viewing angle. It is encouraging to note that the correspondence filter can achieve rotational invariance of pests up to angles of 360 degrees, which proves the effectiveness of the algorithm for the detection and recognition of plant pests.

Accurately tracking moving targets in a complex scene involving moving cameras, occlusions and targets embedded in noise is a very active research area in computer vision. In this paper, an optimal trade-off maximum correlation height (OT-MACH) filter has been designed and implemented as a robust tracker. The algorithm allows selection of different objects as a target, based on the operator’s requirements. The user interface is designed so as to allow the selection of a different target for tracking at any time. The filter is updated, at a frequency selected by the user, which makes the filter more resistant to progressive changes in the object’s orientation and scale. The tracker has been tested on both colour visible band as well as infra-red band video sequences acquired from the air by the Sussex County police helicopter. Initial testing has demonstrated the ability of the filter to maintain a stable track on vehicles despite changes of scale, orientation and lighting and the ability to re-acquire the track after short losses due to the vehicle passing behind occlusions.

Bandwidth management and availability is going to improve greatly.The Cloud will become increasingly important for security and computer vision. Integration of Satellite, Fibre, Wireless. Impacts where you do the Computer Vision

The presentation explores the NATO Space Surveillance Network and the recent developments in updating it with state of the art infrared sensors and high bandwidth communication satellites using triple junction solar panel arrays.

Researchers from the University of Huddersfield were commissioned to conduct a Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) of the published research literature in a selected number of countries, including the United Kingdom (UK) to answer specific questions about the characteristics of the people who procure sex, the context and setting for procuring sex, the related reasons, drivers and motivations and what has been tried elsewhere to deter or hinder those who procure sex and what works in tackling demand for prostitution.

Internet infrastructures in most places of the world have been supported by the advancement of optical fiber technology, most notably wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) system. Optical technology by means of WDM system has revolutionized long distance data transport and has resulted in high data capacity, cost reductions, extremely low bit error rate, and operational simplification of the overall Internet infrastructure. This paper analyses and compares the system impairments, which occur at data transmission rates of 2.5Gb/s and 10 Gb/s per wavelength channel in our proposed optical WDM system for Internet infrastructure in Tanzania. The results show that the data transmission rate of 2.5 Gb/s has minimum system impairments compared with a rate of 10 Gb/s per wavelength channel, and achieves a sufficient system performance to provide a good Internet access service., {"references":["Tanzania Ministry of communication and Transport (2005), \"Technical\nreport on the Feasibility study for implementation of the national\nbackbone infrastructure.\"","East African Submarine System (EASSy) available online from:\nhttp://www.eassy.org [Accessed on May, 2008].","R.Ramaswami and K.Sivarajan, Optical Networks: A Practical\nPerspective, Morgan Kaufmann, 1998.","I.kaminow and T.Li. Optical Fiber Telecommunication, IVA, Academic\npress, 2002.","Govind P.Agrawal, Fiber Optic Communication Systems, 2nd Edition,\n1997.","I.kaminow and T.Li. Optical Fiber Telecommunication, IVB, Academic\npress, 2002.","J.Strand, A.L.Chiu and R.Tkach, \"Issues for routing in the optical layer,\nIEEE Communications Magazine, February 2001.\"","G.P.Agrawal, Nonlinear Fiber Optics, Academic Press, San Diego, 1995.","C.Siva Ram Murthy and M.Gurusamy, WDM Optical Networks:\nConcepts, Design, and Algorithms, Prentice Hall, 2002.\n[10] J.P.Gordon, and L.F.Mollenauer, \"Effects of fiber nonlinearities and\namplifier spacing on ultra-long distance transmission, \" J.Lightwave\nTechnol., vol. 9(2), pp. 170-173, 1991.\n[11] D.Marcuse, A.R.Chraplyvy, R.W.Tkach, \"Dependence of cross-phase\nmodulation on channel number in fiber WDM systems,\"\nJ.Lightwave.vol, 12(5), pp.885-890, 1994.\n[12] R.W.Tkach, A.R.Chraplyvy, F.Forgheiri, A.H.Gnauck and R.M,\nDerosier, \"Four-photon mixing in high-speed WDM system, \"\nJ.Lightwave Technol, vol. 13(5), pp.841-849, 1995."]}

A new stereophotolithography technique utilizing a spatial light modulator ~SLM! to create threedimensional components with a planar, layer-by-layer process of exposure is described. With this procedure it is possible to build components with dimensions in the range of 50 mm–50 mm and feature sizes as small as 5 mm with a resolution of 1 mm. A polysilicon thin-film twisted nematic SVGA SLM is used as the dynamic photolithographic mask. The system consists of eight elements: a UV laser light source, an optical shutter, beam-conditioning optics, a SLM, a multielement reduction lens system, a high-resolution translation stage, a control system, and a computer-aided-design system. Each of these system components is briefly described. In addition, the optical characteristics of commercially available UV curable resins are investigated with nondegenerate four-wave mixing. Holographic gratings were written at a wavelength of 351.1 nm and read at 632.8 nm to compare the reactivity, curing speed, shrinkage, and resolution of the resins.

A high-speed hybrid optical–digital correlator system was designed, constructed, modeled, and demonstrated experimentally. This correlator is capable of operation at approximately 3000 correlations/s. The input scene is digitized at a resolution of 512 × 512 pixels and the phase information of the two-dimensional fast Fourier transform calculated and displayed in the correlator filter plane at normal video frame rates. High-fidelity reference template images are stored in a phase-conjugating optical memory placed at the nominal input plane of the correlator and reconstructed with a high-speed acousto-optic scanner; this allows for cross correlation of the entire reference data set with the input scene within one frame period. A high-speed CCD camera is used to capture the correlation-plane image, and rapid correlation-plane processing is achieved with a parallel processing architecture.

This systematic review analysed 61 papers, from an initial search result of 3,540 papers, to explore how victims of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and interpersonal violence manage their victimisation. The review yielded five themes, centred on evidence for safety strategies adopted by those affected by IPV or interpersonal violence. These comprised; Victims seek help following interpersonal violence; Victims of interpersonal violence experience barriers to seeking help; Victims use multiple strategies to manage experiences of abuse; Victims of interpersonal violence cope in multiple ways; The help-seeking behaviours of victims are contextual. The findings indicated that victims of IPV and interpersonal violence utilise a range of strategies, including help-seeking, safety enhancing strategies and coping strategies, in response to their victimisation. It also indicated that there are significant barriers preventing help-seeking and victimisation reporting. The findings are discussed in relation to the help seeking behaviour of victims and how this may be impacted by barriers at different stages of the help-seeking process.

Prison gangs are a growing problem in prisons. In recent times, Skarbek’s (2011, 2014) governance theory has become increasingly popular in explaining their emergence. Yet, this theory downplays the role that deprivation and importation theories can play in understanding the emergence and behaviour of these gangs. This chapter seeks to address this shortcoming by demonstrating how the inclusion of these theories, alongside the governance theory, can enhance our understanding of prison gang emergence and when gang fragmentation or consolidation may occur. Drawing on research conducted in the US and beyond, this chapter argues that a holistic understanding of prison gangs and their monopolisation of power requires a consideration of the importation and deprivation theories, together with Skarbek’s (2011, 2014) governance theory. Special attention is paid to the wider role political and social processes may play in influencing whether monopoly power by prison gangs is supported and legitimised or not.

The increasing permeation of social media into people’s daily lives is playing an important role in (re)shaping attitudes and behaviours (Annisette & Lafreniere, 2016; Greenfield, 2014). Whilst online activity has huge potential to enhance the quantity and quality of communication between people across the world, it is also raising some serious challenges. This chapter focuses on one of these challenges in particular, namely, the links between gang-related activity in the virtual world and gang-related violence in the real world.

This chapter reviews recent research on gender differences in attitudes towards ‘honor’ based violence and killings in collectivist cultures. A divergent pattern is emerging from these studies that do not align fully with the established attitudinal research into victim blame attributions for other forms of violence against women. While these more recent studies confirm that females are less approving of violence compared to their male counterparts, it is notable that a proportion of females endorsed the abuse and killing of women in the name of ‘honor’. The chapter concludes by discussing psychosocial explanations for these findings, including sexism and religiosity.

School bullying is a serious social problem, which has received widespread public, media, and research attention over the years. The first study of bullying was published in 1969 by a school physician named P. P. Heinemann (Olweus, 1999), which was subsequently followed by extensive empirical inquiry since the 1970s in Scandinavia led by Dan Olweus (Vaillancourt et al., 2008). In subsequent decades, social scientists have developed a rich theoretical and empirical body of knowledge with regards to children and adolescents’ experiences in bullying. Scholars conceptualise bullying as a sub-category of aggression (Smith et al., 2002), characterised as being purposeful, including an imbalance of power, and being repetitive (Hunter, Boyle & Warden, 2007; Smith, 2014). Bullying has for the most part been explored from a psychological perspective, providing insights into proximal risk factors, such as individual traits and behaviours. However, bullying is a complex, multifaceted problem, and consideration of theoretical frameworks from outside psychology is necessary to fully explain why certain individuals (or groups of individuals) are involved in bullying. Scholars have therefore come to realise the importance of integrating psychological theories with social environmental perspectives (sociological, anthropological, political-economic; Lawson & King, 2012). This has the potential to broaden perspectives on the etiology and outcomes of bullying, introduce innovative methodologies, and raise important questions about new approaches to prevention and intervention (Holt et al., 2017).This chapter will provide an overview of multiple social science theories and perspectives in explaining bullying. It is divided by theories and perspectives represented by four major branches of social science: psychology, sociology, anthropology, and political-economics.

About the repository: This book brings together chapters by academics, researchers and practitioners to analyse how crimes such as sex work, domestic violence and rape and sexual assault have risen up the Government agenda in recent years. For example, the 'Paying the Price' consultation exercise on sex work in 2004, and recent legislation around sex crimes, including the Sex Offences Act (2003). This is a multi-disciplinary, social scientific, pro-feminist collection, which draws upon practice, empirical research, documentary analysis and overviews of research in the areas of sex work and sexual violence. Within Sex as Crime there are two distinct sub-sections: 'Sex for Sale' and 'Sex as Violence', but the broader and overriding link of sex as crime remains a paramount theme that spans the collection.\ud \ud Chapters include discussions of the impact of new regulations on street sex workers, and of street sex work on community residents, the use of the internet by men who pay for sex and men who sell it, sexual violence and identity, sex crimes against children and protecting children online and working with sex offenders. Other chapters explore reasons for such offending behaviour.

As with its female counterpart, male sex work (MSW) has generally been regarded as deeply problematic, either because of negative societal attitudes to the selling of sex or the prevalence of psychosocial and economic problems amongst those attracted to MSW and the attendant health risks and dangers encountered whilst engaged in it. While the phenomenon of female sex work has received a great deal of criminological scrutiny, there has been comparatively less attention paid to male sex workers (MSWs). The research which we report on in this chapter aimed to further our understanding of the motivations of MSWs, the risks they face, their engagement with support agencies and their intentions for the future.