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Temperature-related circulatory mortality has gained consistent public health importance worldwide due to changes in inter-annual average temperatures and the increased frequency of extreme events over time. This study investigates the association between temperature and circulatory deaths in one of the highest population densities in the world (Malta) with a Mediterranean climate. Daily deaths relating to circulatory mortality (32,847 deaths) were obtained from January 1992 to December 2017. A distributed lag non-linear model (DLNM) with a Poisson distribution was utilized to estimate effects of ambient temperatures and heatwaves or cold spells (2–4 consecutive days). Effects were also explored for the specific cause of death, different age groups, gender and time periods. The study observed a U-shaped cumulative exposure–response curve with a greater mortality risk due to cooler temperatures (8–15°C) after adjusting for harvesting effects (0–27 days). Colder temperatures (, peer-reviewed

Extreme temperatures are one of the leading causes of death and disease in both developed and developing countries, and heat extremes are projected to rise in many regions. To reduce risk, heatwave plans and cold weather plans have been effectively implemented around the world. However, much of the world's population is not yet protected by such systems, including many data-scarce but also highly vulnerable regions. In this study, we assess at a global level where such systems have the potential to be effective at reducing risk from temperature extremes, characterizing (1) long-term average occurrence of heatwaves and coldwaves, (2) seasonality of these extremes, and (3) short-term predictability of these extreme events three to ten days in advance. Using both the NOAA and ECMWF weather forecast models, we develop global maps indicating a first approximation of the locations that are likely to benefit from the development of seasonal preparedness plans and/or short-term early warning systems for extreme temperature. The extratropics generally show both short-term skill as well as strong seasonality; in the tropics, most locations do also demonstrate one or both. In fact, almost 5 billion people live in regions that have seasonality and predictability of heatwaves and/or coldwaves. Climate adaptation investments in these regions can take advantage of seasonality and predictability to reduce risks to vulnerable populations.

Rapid and sudden changes in air temperature can be classified as extreme events, having a risk for human activities, human health and ecosystems. Flash heat and flash cold events are investigated in the Iberian Peninsula during since 1900. Flash heat events (Mazon et al., 2014; http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Flash_heat) is described as a discrete period of abnormal warming, nominally lasting more than an hour but less than a day (between heat burst and heat wave phenomena), occurring on the meso-beta scale. In a similar way, flash cold has been defined as a rapid drop of the air temperature lasting more than an hour but less than a day. We investigate the tendency since 1900 of these type of flash events in the Iberian Peninsula from homogeneous series of daily maximum and minimum temperature. The trend and the distribution of the intensity of these events are shown. Additionally, we show the convenience to analyze these type of flash events for a better understanding of the atmospheric dynamics

Hot and cold waves are perfectly defined by different meteorology agencies in matters of time and area. However, there is a phenomenon that takes place on a lower spatial and temporal scale. It is known as Flash Heat and Flash cold. According to the Spanish State Meteorology Agency (AEMet), a heat wave is an episode of, at least, three consecutive days where 10% or more of its stations record maximum temperatures that are over 95% of their list of maximum daily temperatures in the months of July and August for the period between 1971 and 2000. Likewise, AEMet considers that a cold wave is an episode of, at least, three consecutive days where 10% of its stations register minimum temperatures below 5% of their recorded minimum daily temperatures of January and February from 1971 until 2000. Following the research done by Mazón et al. (2014), where the Flash Heat phenomenon is described, we have developed its investigation and defined the Flash Cold by analogy. The main purpose of this paper is to analyze the data presented in order to explain the phenomena that we have studied. To develop our research, daily data from 22 different weather stations across Spain dating from 1900 until 2010 have been used as well as data collected from NETCDF for the period between 1970 and 2010. Working with these two formats has allowed us to detect discrepancies between using real and estimated values. Once all the data has been analyzed, the effect that these phenomena have in aeronautics will be studied through a theoretical analysis of the equations and the relation between its terms. Lastly, we will present the conclusions obtained through our research in order to finish this study and complete the project. Las olas de calor y frío están perfectamente definidas en cuanto a tiempo y área por diferentes agencias meteorológicas, pero hay un fenómeno el cual se sitúa en una escala espacial y temporal inferior, el Flash Heat y el Flash Co ld. Según la Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia (AEMet) se considera una ola de calor como un episodio de, al menos, tres días consecutivos, en el que como mínimo el 10% de las estaciones consideradas registran máximas por encima del percentil del 95% de su serie de temperaturas máximas diarias de los meses de julio y agosto del periodo 1971 - 2000. De la misma manera, según AEMet, se considera ola de frío un episodio de al menos tres días consecutivos, en que como mínimo el 10% de las estaciones consideradas registran mínimas por debajo del percentil del 5% de su serie de temperaturas mínimas diarias de los meses de enero y febrero del periodo 1971 - 2000 . Siguiendo las investigaciones en Mazón et al. (2014) (ver en [ 1 ]) , en el cual se define el fenómeno Flash Heat, hemos procedido a seguir con la investigación y, análogamente al Flash Heat, definir el Flash Cold. El objetivo principal de este trabajo es analizar los datos proporcionados con el fin de mostrar y dar explicación a los fenómenos investigados. Usaremos datos discretos desde 1900 a 2010 de 22 estaciones meteorológicas repartidas por la geografía española y por otro lado, datos NETCDF desde 1970 a 2010. Además, trabajar con estos dos formatos, nos permitirá observar las di screpancias entre trabajar con datos reales y datos interpolados. Una vez se hayan analizado todos los datos, se estudiará la repercusión de estos fenómenos en la aeronáutica a través del análisis teórico de las ecuaciones y la relación entre sus términos . Finalmente extraeremos las conclusiones que hemos obtenido de nuestra investigación, dando por acabado nuestro proyecto

Under meteorological conditions associated with extreme cold air outbreaks (CAO) off the U.S. East Coast, large ocean waves sometimes develop along the North Wall of the Gulf Stream. These wave events produce wave heights above those expected given the short fetch and moderate winds. The highest waves are often very localized, which suggests localized forcing by the atmosphere. In this study, results from four cases are examined to characterize the role of high resolution, mesoscale wind forcing in generating localized regions of large ocean waves during events with large air-sea temperature differences. A known "true" atmosphere is simulated through the use of the Navy's Coupled Oceanographic and Atmospheric Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS). Model surface wind output from COAMPS is used to generate a wave field using Wavewatch Three (WW3), which is then compared to buoy observations and ship reports. Results of these cases show the mesoscale wind forcing of ocean waves during CAO and the importance of mesoscale atmospheric modeling in localized generation of ocean wind waves. Additionally, empirical wave forecast techniques are compared to WW3 model output for these cases to further reinforce the mesoscale atmospheric forcing during rapid growth of wind wave events in fetch limited environments. http://archive.org/details/mesoscaleforcing109451077 Lieutenant Commander, United States Navy Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.