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Organic agriculture and organic food have expanded in recent decades but have undergone conventionalisation. Some claim that this contradicts some or all of the principles of ‘health’, ‘ecology’, ‘fairness’ and ‘care’ established by the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movement (IFOAM). It is currently unclear how research on organic food/agriculture is structured, whether it embraces these principles, or how key crop diversification, driving sustainability, are addressed. To fill these knowledge gaps, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of 10,030 peer-reviewed articles published from 1945 to 2021 with topic and textual analysis. Our main findings were the following: (1) research is compartmentalised into scales and disciplines, with at field-scale ‘weed’, ‘soil’, ‘pest and disease’ management and ‘livestock farming’ seldom addressed together, or with environmental assessment separated from socioeconomic studies at farm scale. (2) The proportion of publications on ‘consumers’ preferences’ and ‘product quality’ research almost tripled in 20 years, from 10 to 27%, emphasizing the consumer orientation of research on organic agriculture and organic food. (3) Only 4% of articles covered all four IFOAM principles, while associated values such as ‘resilience’, ‘integrity’, ‘equity’, ‘transparency’ and ‘justice’ were even less frequently addressed. (4) Fewer diversification practices have been tested in organic than in conventional agriculture research, with fewer articles on ‘crop mixtures’ or ‘bee-friendly crops’ and a smaller range of legumes considered. (5) Research on genetic improvement and processing of organic legumes is lacking, which could constrain adoption of legumes in organic farming even more than in conventional agriculture. These results indicate a need for increasing interdisciplinary efforts at field level, with systematic measurement of multiple processes (weed-nutrient-pest dynamics). Future studies on organic agriculture should combine several diversification practices and legumes, with relevant indicators addressing the IFOAM values explicitly, and consider the whole value chain by linking producers with consumers.

Organic agriculture and organic food have expanded in recent decades but have undergone conventionalisation. Some claim that this contradicts some or all of the principles of ‘health’, ‘ecology’, ‘fairness’ and ‘care’ established by the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movement (IFOAM). It is currently unclear how research on organic food/agriculture is structured, whether it embraces these principles, or how key crop diversification, driving sustainability, are addressed. To fill these knowledge gaps, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of 10,030 peer-reviewed articles published from 1945 to 2021 with topic and textual analysis. Our main findings were the following: (1) research is compartmentalised into scales and disciplines, with at field-scale ‘weed’, ‘soil’, ‘pest and disease’ management and ‘livestock farming’ seldom addressed together, or with environmental assessment separated from socioeconomic studies at farm scale. (2) The proportion of publications on ‘consumers’ preferences’ and ‘product quality’ research almost tripled in 20 years, from 10 to 27%, emphasizing the consumer orientation of research on organic agriculture and organic food. (3) Only 4% of articles covered all four IFOAM principles, while associated values such as ‘resilience’, ‘integrity’, ‘equity’, ‘transparency’ and ‘justice’ were even less frequently addressed. (4) Fewer diversification practices have been tested in organic than in conventional agriculture research, with fewer articles on ‘crop mixtures’ or ‘bee-friendly crops’ and a smaller range of legumes considered. (5) Research on genetic improvement and processing of organic legumes is lacking, which could constrain adoption of legumes in organic farming even more than in conventional agriculture. These results indicate a need for increasing interdisciplinary efforts at field level, with systematic measurement of multiple processes (weed-nutrient-pest dynamics). Future studies on organic agriculture should combine several diversification practices and legumes, with relevant indicators addressing the IFOAM values explicitly, and consider the whole value chain by linking producers with consumers.

In this article, we quantify the impact of the crop diversification measure implemented in France as part of the 2013 common agricultural policy greening reform. We exploit a discontinuity in the constraints imposed on farms larger and smaller than 30 ha, respectively, and apply regression differences-in-differences with a regression discontinuity set-up on land use data collected from a representative sample of French farmers. We find that farms greater than 30 ha increased compliance with the measure and the number of crops grown on their lands and that farms larger and smaller than 30 ha responded differently to the reform.

Agriculture contributes the most to the economy and provides agro-ecological benefits in the environmentally unsustainable Aral Sea region, but its productivity is steadily dropping. To improve the resilience of farming communities in the region, crop diversification is proposed to enable farmers to grow high-value competitive crops and obtain more stable farm incomes. This study provides long-term, multidisciplinary analyses and strategies for strengthening crop diversification amongst farmers in the Aral Sea region. The study analyzed data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the statistical yearbook of 2000–2020. According to the gross margin study findings, farmers who use diversified cropping systems made considerably higher revenues than farmers relying on mono-cropping practices. This study demonstrates that greater crop diversity contributes to the rational use of natural resources and optimization plans, environmental sustainability, and food security as important natural and socio-economic issues in this region. The study findings suggest that proper crop diversification strategies need to be developed in the Aral Sea region to improve the sustainability of farming systems with enhanced resilience to devastating environmental and climate challenges.

Specialization may lead to higher income for small-scale farmers but comes with increased risks, while diversification can mitigate risks and foster agricultural sustainability. Considering the influences of complex risks and farmers’ subjective risk aversion, the decision for small-scale farmers to specialize in citrus cultivation or diversify with multiple crops remains uncertain. There is currently limited understanding of this issue among citrus smallholders in rural China. This study aims to fill this empirical gap by examining the impact of smallholder farmers’ subjective risk aversion on their choice between citrus monoculture and crop diversification. It utilizes a subjective risk assessment approach that incorporates farmers’ risk perceptions and risk attitudes towards citrus farming. Farm crop diversification is assessed through the utilization of both the count index and Shannon index. The empirical analysis employs survey data obtained from citrus growers in Guangxi, China, and applies an instrumental variable regression method with endogeneity consideration using the IV-Probit model and 2SLS model estimation. The results reveal that both risk perceptions and risk attitudes play important roles in citrus smallholders’ land allocation decisions. Specifically, citrus farmers who perceive higher risks and adopt risk-averse attitudes are statistically more inclined to engage in land use diversification practices, including the practice of growing citrus as well as other crops, which contributes to reducing the risks of citrus farming and promoting local environmental conservation. These results contribute to a better scholarly comprehension of the relationship between risk perceptions, risk attitudes, and crop diversification among small-scale citrus farmers. They provide valuable insights for enhancing the sustainability of land use systems with citrus farming while also emphasizing the importance of maintaining essential diversification in small-scale farming throughout the process of agricultural modernization.

The agrarian communities of South Asia are dominated by small and marginal farmers (

The main obstacles to food security are the immense pressure from the constantly growing population and the diminishing availability of land and water. Intensive agricultural practises hasten the deterioration of soil health. Similarly increased groundwater exploitation also caused a decline in groundwater level. Accelerated soil erosion is a result of anthropogenic activities like slash-and-burn agriculture, overgrazing, deforestation, and intensive and inefficient agricultural practises. This increased rate of soil erosion decreases soil and crop productivity over time by removing organic matter and plant nutrients from the fertile topsoil. A higher canopy cover and mulching of crop residues prevent soil particles from detaching from the soil surface and protect it from intense rainfall, which lowers the rate of surface runoff and lessens the effects of rainfall erosivity and soil erodibility. Moreover, it also conserves soil moisture and retains sediment and organic materials. The threat that agriculture poses to groundwater is also a serious problem, especially because groundwater is a hidden resource and its degradation and restoration frequently occur gradually. However, it is now necessary to offer workable and long-term solutions to keep the groundwater table high. There are many different approaches being used to find a more long-lasting balance. A holistic approach to managing soil and water resources is necessary for both the future viability of agriculture and the preservation of the natural ecosystem. As a result, the adoption of advanced irrigation technologies, no-till farming, conservation tillage, direct seeded rice, precision land levelling, agroforestry, and crop diversification are all essential for soil and water conservation., Open-Access Online Publication: May 29, 2023

Modern agriculture has been focused on optimizing production, neglecting supporting and regulating ecosystem services. Meta-analyses have demonstrated the potential of intercropping to deliver multiple ecosystem services. However, guidelines for the design and management of such systems remain unclear, especially for the understudied vegetable-based intercropping systems. Given the diversity of vegetable crops, we propose a ‘relay’ of classical crop-specific meta-analyses to capitalize on vegetable intercropping research. Each ‘leg’ in the relay analyzes the effects of companion crops on a focal crop, and over the course of subsequent legs, the network of interactions among the different crops is built. In this study we start what we aspire to be the meta-analysis relay, focusing on cabbage (Brassica oleracea ssp.) and the delivery of the provisioning services Productivity, Product Quality (grade and pest injury in cabbage products), and Yield Stability across different companion species, spatio-temporal configurations, and management practices. We identified 76 studies from all inhabited continents across 81 field sites, comprising 892 data records, of which 689 remained after cleaning. We show that intercropping reduced cabbage productivity (−7% on average, P < 0.05) but also pest injury (−48%, P < 0.001) relative to sole cabbage systems. Cabbage grade on the contrary was not significantly improved by intercropping (+1%, P = 0.71). Effects on yield stability varied widely as only few data records were available from trials conducted over more than two years, pointing to the need for longer-term experimentation. Greater productivity was associated with companion species with a low growth habit or types sown at or after planting of the cabbage crop thus limiting competition with cabbage at early development stages. The decrease in pest injuries was associated with intercropping patterns involving strong inter-plant interactions (i.e., mixed, row, and additive) and companion species that supported biodiversity such as living mulches. Overall, beneficial effects of intercropping tended to be more evident in organic production systems, possibly because synthetic inputs may have hidden regulating effects. Cabbage growers and agricultural advisors can use these guidelines when designing intercrop systems specific to their needs. Applying the approach to other crops and agro-ecosystem services as part of the proposed meta-analysis relay will foster comprehensive understanding of vegetable intercropping systems interactions.

Until the Covid-19 pandemic, Bangladesh had reported consistent improvements regarding its food and nutrition security (FNS) status, and yet, the country still features poor FNS outcomes among parts of its population. In rural coastal regions of the Ganges–Brahmaputra-Meghna delta, farming households’ vulnerability is particularly exacerbated by a range of environmental hazards, increasing challenges for agriculture to contribute to higher FNS levels. In the context of existing literature on the trade-offs between subsistence agriculture and cash-earning livelihood activities, vis-à-vis food and nutrition security outcomes, this article assesses the relative contribution of crop diversification vis à vis other factors on the households’ Food Consumption Score (FCS) in specific livelihood contexts. We provide differentiated analyses between primarily export-oriented shrimp farming and non-shrimp farming households, so policy makers can better address FNS targets. Quantitative data from 1,188 sample households across the delta were analysed through descriptive and linear regression analyses. Results show that households cultivating shrimp have a significantly higher dietary diversity than households that do not. Among shrimp farmers, crop diversification has the relatively strongest significant positive effect on dietary diversity, suggesting part of the aquacultural crops are geared towards subsistence. By contrast, crop diversification seems to have a negative effect on dietary diversity among households that do not produce shrimp, especially when different agricultural crops are combined. Importantly, both for shrimp and non-shrimp farmers, crop diversification systems combining agriculture with aquaculture, and agroforestry seem to improve diverse diets among households. While by no means a panacea to solving FNS challenges among rural households, we suggest that promoting specific crop diversification systems could be a beneficial pathway to improved FNS outcomes.

Root herbivores pose a major threat to agricultural crops. They are difficult to control and their damage often goes unnoticed until the larvae reach their most devastating late instar stages. Crop diversification can reduce pest pressure, generally without compromising yield. We studied how different diversified cropping systems affected the oviposition and abundance of the specialist cabbage root fly Delia radicum, the most important root herbivore in Brassica crops. The cropping systems included a monoculture, pixel cropping, and four variations of strip cropping with varying intra- and interspecific crop diversity, fertilization and spatial configuration. Furthermore, we assessed whether there was a link between D. radicum and other macroinvertebrates associated with the same plants. Cabbage root fly oviposition was higher in strip cropping designs compared to the monoculture and was highest in the most diversified strip cropping design. Despite the large number of eggs, there were no consistent differences in the number of larvae and pupae between the cropping systems, indicative of high mortality of D. radicum eggs and early instars especially in the strip cropping designs. D. radicum larval and pupal abundance positively correlated with soil-dwelling predators and detritivores and negatively correlated with other belowground herbivores. We found no correlations between the presence of aboveground insect herbivores and the number of D. radicum on the roots. Our findings indicate that root herbivore presence is determined by a complex interplay of many factors, spatial configuration of host plants, and other organisms residing near the roots.

Significant detrimental effects of agricultural intensification and specialization are becoming increasingly evident. Reliance on monocultures, few varieties, and intensive use of agrochemicals is a major factor in climate change, biodiversity decline, soil health deterioration, and pollution, putting our food system at risk. This requires sustainable agricultural processes, such as crop diversification, to be more rapidly and effectively tested, adopted, and scaled. While these processes are typically introduced at niche level, they often struggle to scale and to induce broader sustainability transitions. In this study, we investigate how scaling may occur, focusing on institutional logics, their changes, and realignment over time. In particular, we applied an abductive research strategy to collect empirical evidence from two in-depth, longitudinal case studies of innovation niches related to crop diversification. Doing so, we show for the first time that, despite their many differences, scaling processes of crop diversification in both niches converge, presenting similar progressions in terms of institutional dimensions, and facing similar obstacles when it comes to value chain formation. While initial experimentation could still be implemented using organizational forms familiar to the lead actors, we discover that a systemic lack of adequate value chain arrangements obstructed the scaling process of crop diversification in both cases. These findings have been used to reflect on the role of value chain relations in scaling processes in sustainability transitions in agriculture.

Crop diversification is the use of multiple cropping systems, i.e., the addition of more crops to the existing cropping system along with the use of different crop species. In this study, the Gibbs-Martin index, log scale technique, and linear regressions are used to explain the regional pattern of crop diversification and the shift in the degree and extent of crop diversification. The Crop diversification was discovered in the Malwa region, with a positive shift in crop diversification over the last 15 years, according to the study. The study also found increases and decreases in the pattern of crop acreages for different crops.

Crop diversification is considered as a means to promote agricultural development while lowering its environmental implications. Diversified food production must substantially increase to fulfil the needs of food security and sustainability for the world’s future population. This study identified the finer details of diversification in India’s 20 agriculturally prosperous states through analyzing the regional trends in agricultural diversification. The analysis, which covered the period from 1971–1972 to 2017–2018, showed that agricultural diversification has taken place in several states of India. This study revealed that, due to the significant heterogeneity in agro-climatic and socio-economic conditions, the type of diversification varies among the regions. In these periods, cash- crop percentage in the gross-cropped area has increased from 18 percent to 37 percent, reflecting a major impact on the Shannon-Wiener diversification index. Crop diversification has been influenced by rural literacy, irrigation intensity, road infrastructure, per-capita, gross-state-domestic products, regional-rural-branch intensity, rainfall deviation, credit intensity, and India’s growing urban population, whereas cropping intensity has not affected crop diversification in India.

Conservation agriculture (CA) relies on three fundamental and inseparable pillars: no soil disturbance, diversified crop rotations, and permanent soil cover. Nevertheless, few studies have evaluated the interactive effect of these three fundamental pillars on a multicriteria basis. Here, we mobilize data from the French AGROSYST database, which gathers all farming practices and performances of the 3000 farms involved in the French DEPHY farmers’ network. Linear mixed effect models were used to compare the performance (13 indicators) of CA (CAs, N=36) and pseudo-CA systems (pseudo-CAs, N=19, allowing one occasional superficial tillage) to conventional tillage (plowed, CTs, N=135) and superficial tillage (STs, N=90) based systems in similar production situations (climate, soil type, presence of livestock or irrigation, etc.). CAs required (compared to STs and CTs, respectively) more herbicides (+27 and +90%) but slightly less insecticides (-64 and -50%, non-significant), decreased time of traction/ha/year (-25 and -32%), fuel consumption (-21 and -39%), as well as mechanization costs (-20 and -26%), tended to slightly decrease profitability/ha (-7 and -19%, non-significant) due to slightly lower productivity (-19% and -25%) but resulted in better profitability per hour of field traction (+23% and +18%). Pseudo-CAs did not implement the three CA principles since crop rotation were as diverse and cover crop as frequent as in STs and CTs, and tillage occurred, albeit rarely. However, pseudo-CAs used less insecticides (-92 and -83% compared to STs and CTs, respectively), decreased fuel consumption (-25% compared to CTs), and resulted in similar productivity and economic profitability (per hectare and per hour of field traction). Further investigation is required to identify the diversity of responses across production situations, the determinants of multi-performance in given production situations, and to track down the rare innovative systems optimizing multiple performances and solving apparent trade-offs.

The soils of flat alluvial fans mantled by blow sand (Humic Arenosols) usually present unfavourable properties for agriculture: low organic matter and soil moisture content, low levels of aggregation, low clay content to absorb nutrients and high exposure to wind erosion. In dry periods when the protective effect of vegetation is reduced, sand storms detach and carry away large amounts of organic particles. The soil profile of the Hungarian study area shows buried humic horizons which indicate intensive reworking by wind action in historical times. Given the limited choice of crops which can be cultivated in the region, an asparagus field was selected for experimentation. Asparagus rows are aligned in the direction of the prevailing wind. The plastic foil cover of asparagus ridges intensifies wind erosion through a wind channel effect. Two different crop diversifications were introduced to assess possible improvements in ecosystem services including wind erosion control: plots with asparagus monocropping (M as control) alternated with pea (D1) and oat intercropping (D2) between asparagus ridges. The flux of eolian transport captured by sediment traps in a 1-metre high and 100-metre wide cross section, measured and analyzed for composition at four heights: on the ground surface, at 30 cm, 200 cm and 400 cm heights. Meteorological records were evaluated for starting velocities of sand movement estimated from wind tunnel experiments. For the region critical starting wind velocity at 10 cm height was established at c. 6 m s-1. Large-scale irrigation to allow surface crusting is not feasible because of the lowering of the groundwater table. Cover crops were found to reduce soil erosion by wind in two ways: through providing vegetation cover in the periods critical for sand storms (early spring and late summer) and through enriching the soil with organic matter by way of green manuring, which is also beneficial for soil fertility. There were significant differences between treatments. The pea and oat crops well utilized the moisture derived from occasional thunderstorms and in the second year provided a continuous vegetation cover. There was minimal concurrence between the main crop (root zone at 0-150 cm) and the cover crops introduced (root zone at 0-20 cm). Although no significant rise in total nitrogen contents of the soil could be achieved (explained by the extremely low clay content and aggregate formation capacity), organic matter contents grew due to the biomass added to the soil in form of crop residues. (Although their decomposition rate is low due to the dry environment.) Dust amounts captured at 200 cm above 105.39 kg y-1, at 400 cm above the ground surface amounted to 26.75 kg y-1, while sand saltated along the surface at 0-15 cm reached an average 2130 kg y-1. In sediment traps near the surface saltated sand had a median diameter of 174 µm, at +15 cm 134 µm, at +200 cm 118 µm and grain size substantially reduced to 42 µm (coarse silt) at +400 cm.

The relay intercropping of subsidiary legumes with durum wheat (living mulch) can be a valuable agroecological practice to supports nutrient availability and non-chemical weed control at crop rotation level without negative impacts on crop productivity (Tosti et al., 2016; Hiltbrunner et al., 2007). This study aimed to investigate the long-term agronomical and economical sustainability of eight different legumes among perennial, annual and annual self-seeding species tested in relay intercropping with durum wheat in a Mediterranean low-input cereal-based cropping system. In particular we evaluated the impact of each legume on 1) intercropped wheat, through the evaluation of N uptake, grain yield and protein content, 2) the subsequent forage sorghum taking into account the residual effects of the legumes on the following summer crop through the evaluation of biomass production and N uptake, 3) the effects of legume on weeds community composition and biomass before and after wheat harvest and in the subsequent cash crop. Finally we performed an economic assessment to test if costs due to the relay intercropping are balanced by the ecosystem services it provides at crop rotation level taking into account the impact of the legumes on the co-cultivated wheat and on the following forage sorghum.

Relay intercropping of subsidiary legumes with durum wheat (living mulch) can be a viable option to support ecological weed control and optimize nutrient cycling in cereal-based cropping systems. However, the lack of knowledge on suitable legume species is often identified as the main bottleneck for the successful application of legume living mulches. This study aimed to evaluate the suitability of 12 different legumes for relay intercropping with wheat in two contrasting Mediterranean cereal-based cropping systems respectively characterized by low-input and integrated management. Each legume was monitored from the undersowing in wheat until the following spring and we compared direct drilling to broadcast sowing of legumes. None of the undersown legumes showed a negative effect on the wheat grain yield. Relay intercropping of legumes proved to be an effective solution to control weeds before and after the wheat harvest, provided suitable legumes species are chosen. Suitable legumes reduced the weed biomass up to the 90% during the intercropping and up to 94% in the following spring. On the contrary, legumes such as Trifoliumresupinatum, Viciavillosa, Medicagotruncatula, and Medicagoscutellata boosted weed growth in the following spring in comparison with the control. According to the performance of legumes, Medicagosativa, Trifoliumrepens and Medicagolupulina had the most suitable characteristics for relay intercropping with durum wheat at the Ravenna site, in a highly productive region whereas Medicagosativa, Hedysarumcoronarium and Trifoliumsubterraneum performed better in the low-input system near Pisa, where yields are generally lower. This is the first time that such a diversity in legumes species is tested in the same experiment for relay intercropping under diversified environmental and management conditions. The results of this study can support farmers in selecting the most appropriated legume species for their specific cropping systems and local conditions.

The South Asian agricultural sector has experienced vigorous growth and structural transformation over the last few decades, albeit differently across the region. This study examines the crop diversification status and various determinants, such as socioeconomic (per capita gross domestic product, population, arable land, and cropland), soil/agronomic (root zone moisture), agricultural inputs (fertilizer and pesticide consumption), the productivity of food and non-food crops, international trade, and climate (maximum and minimum temperature and rainfall) factors. The share of cereals has decreased in most countries, but they continue to dominate South Asian agriculture. The area under high-value crops in India has increased significantly, replacing the area under cereal cultivation during the study period. Similar results were seen in the Maldives, where vegetables replaced oilseeds. The Hausman model test suggested a random-effects model for analyzing the determinants. All the determinants considered in the study explain 69 percent of the variation in the crop diversification index. The crop diversification in South Asia was influenced by per capita gross domestic product (G.D.P.), minimum temperature, pesticide consumption, food crop yield index, and non-food crop yield index during the study period. Cropland percentage and population, on the other hand, reduce crop diversification. The price factor contributed more than half to agricultural growth. It remained the primary source of growth in all South Asian countries, followed by yield, which is identified as the second most crucial factor. The contribution of crop diversification to agricultural growth has been declining over time.

Specialization and intensification in agriculture have increased productivity but have also led to the spread of monocultural systems, simplifying production but reducing genetic diversity. The purpose of this study was to propose crop diversification as a tool to increase biodiversity and achieve sustainable and resilient intensive agriculture, particularly in areas with water scarcity. In this paper, a combined life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) applied to evaluate the environmental and economic sustainability of a differentiated system of cultivation were (pomegranates, almonds and olives), according to modern intensive and super-intensive cropping systems. Based on the results obtained, it is deduced that pomegranate cultivation generated the highest environmental load, followed by almonds and olives. From the financial analysis, it emerged that almond farming is the most profitable, followed by pomegranate and olive farming.

Use of crop diversification and trap crops in potato fields to reduce the incidence of cyst nematode, reduce nematicides and increase yield and soil biodiversity This work was funded by the European Commission Horizon 2020 project SoildiverAgro [grant agreement 817819].

In the present study, we investigated the effects of mixed intercropping winter wheat-winter pea on activity density and biocontrol potential of epigeal generalist predators. We show that mixed intercropping wheat and pea may represent a valid strategy to favour generalist predators and support conservation biological control compared to wheat cultivated as mono-crop. Furthermore, we show that the cultivation of pea may have an important ecological pre-crop value within the rotation improving relevant biodiversity-related ecosystem services.

19thEuropean Weed Research Society Conference, Athens, Greece, 20-23 June 2022 This work raises the questions, is the relay intercropping of subsidiary legumes with durum wheat a sustainable intercropping practice from an economic point of view? Which subsidiary legume among Medicago sativa, Trifolium repens, Hedysarum coronarium, Medicago lupulina, Trifolium incarnatum, Trifolium resupinatum; Trifolium subterraneum, and Medicago polymorpha maximize the profitability of relay intecropping in a low-input cereal based Mediterranean cropping system? Therefore, an assessment was performed to evaluate the economic sustainability of several subsidiary legumes for relay intercropping with durum wheat, taking into account the impact of legumes on the co-cultivated wheat and to the subsequent forage sorghum. A 2-years plot experiment was carried out in Pisa (Tuscany) in a complete randomized block design with 4 replications. Legumes were sown in the already established wheat in late winter. After the wheat harvest legumes were maintained in the field until the subsequent spring and incorporated into the soil by plowing. Forage sorghum was sown for the evaluation of the residual effects of each legume on the subsequent crop. Gross Income (GI) was calculated for wheat and sorghum as the difference between the Gross Production Value (GPV) and the total production costs (C). The overall economic impact of relay intercropping in a wheat-sorghum rotation was estimated by the calculation of the cumulative GI. Results of this study reveal that relay intercropping reduces profitability of the co-cultivated durum wheat because the productive advantages do not cover the additional costs due to the inter-sowing operations. After the wheat harvest the presence of legumes in the field ensure a good weed control and potentially allows to reduce tillage and herbicides application with an estimated save of 195 €/ha compared to the conventional management. The gross income of sorghum preceded by these legumes is higher compared to the control and it can be up to 955 €/ha. According to the legume choice, relay intercropping of legumes demonstrated to satisfy nutritional requirements for the subsequent sorghum and allows to reduce the input costs up to 253 €/ha. H. coronarium and T. repens were identified as the best performing legumes from an economic point of view. For these legumes the costs due to the relay intercropping were balanced by the ecosystem services that they provide at crop rotation level.

This presentation shows the results of a study investigating the performance of three legumes (Medicago sativa, Medicago polymorpha, and Trifolium subterraneum) as a IPM tool in a relay intercropping system with durum wheat. The study was conducted near Pisa (Italy) in a low-input Mediterranean cropping system for two consecutive wheat-sorghum rotations to assess the effects of relay intercropping of legumes on weeds at crop rotation level. During the intercropping period legumes reduced weed biomass up to 90% compared with the control (wheat sole crop), without negative impact on yield. After wheat harvest, legumes persisted in the field and biomass production level determined their weed control capacity. Medicago sativa and Trifolium subterraneum established a suppressive mulch and reduced weed biomass up to 90 % compared with the control whereas no significant effect was observed for Medicago polymorpha. In the subsequent spring legumes were incorporated into the soil and sorghum was sown. Residual effects of Medicago sativa significantly reduced weeds biomass by the 50% in sorghum compared with the control. Results of this experiment confirmed that the biomass production is a good indicator of the weed control ability of legumes. However, biomass did not fully explain the variability in weed control capacity of the selected legumes. Allelochemical effects of legumes may also be involved. Studying the allelochemical properties of legumes can be difficult under field conditions and therefore two additional laboratory experiments were conducted to deepen the knowledge about the chemical interactions between wheat, legumes, and weeds during two critical phases for weed control: the intercropping period and the period after the incorporation of legume residues into the soil. An intercropping pattern was created in pots to explore the effect of the co-cultivation with wheat on the biosynthesis and root exudation of flavonoids in legumes. Flavonoids with potential allelochemical activity such as daidzein, genistein, medicarpin, formononetin and kaempferol significantly increased in plant tissues and root exudates of the legumes in response to co-cultivation with wheat. An additional pot experiment was carried out to investigate the allelopathic effect of the legume fresh biomass on the germinability of four weed species (Alepecurus myosuroides, Lolium rigidum, Chenopodium album and Sinapis alba). To simulate the incorporation of legumes before the sorghum sowing, legume fresh leaves were grinded and mixed with field soil at two concentrations: 25 and 50 g/l. Results of this experiment were consistent with what had been observed under field conditions and confirmed that Medicago sativa has the highest allelochemical potential compared with the Trifolium subterraneum and Medicago polymorpha. This research was supported by the H2020 project IWMPRAISE (grant number 727321) and FL had a PhD scholarship from Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna in Pisa

Smallholder farmers in southern Nigeria have relied on the cultivation of cassava, yam, maize and plantain for their livelihood for generations. However, with rising climate variability and soil degradation, many farmers are adopting crop diversification as a viable alternative to improve the productivity of their farmland by growing multiple crops. Therefore, this study was conducted to examine factors that influence crop diversification, and the intensity of crop diversification among small-scale farmers in Delta State. Data for the study were obtained from a random sample of 236 farmers. Crop diversification index (CDI) was used to measure crop diversity, while descriptive statistics, Heckman two-step model and t-test were used to analyse the data. The results showed that 62.3% of the farmers were female; farmers' average age was 51 years, while farm size ranged between 0.08 and 2.2 ha, with a mean of 0.84 ha. Significant differences existed in farming experience (p < 0.05), farm income and farm size (p < 0.01) between crop diversifiers and non-diversifiers. The Heckman model results indicated that age, farm size, credit access, extension contact and farm income had significant positive (p < 0.01) effects on farmers' diversification decision; while farm size, credit access, extension contact and attitude to risk exerted positive and significant influence on intensity of crop diversification by smallholder farmers. Arising from the findings, there is an urgent need for government to chart a new policy direction to revamp the ailing agricultural extension delivery system, a farmer-targeted micro-credit institutions and reforms in land rights to smallholder farmers to enhance timely access to agricultural land to promote crop enterprise diversification among farming households.

Soil hydraulic properties and pore continuity are important parameters of soil quality and may differ among tillage systems, crop rotations, and change over time. However, there are some contrasting results, depending on soil type, climate and cultivation history on the spatial and temporal variations. The objective of this study was to determine spatio-temporal dynamics of soil hydraulic properties and pore characteristics (i.e., pore volume, effective porosity, and continuity) on a silt loam long-term tillage field experiment, in Agramunt, NE Spain, during two cropping years. Undisturbed soil samples were used to determine soil water retention, θ(Ψ), and soil hydraulic conductivity, K(Ψ), curves in two different tillage systems (intensive tillage, IT vs no-tillage, NT), two crop sequences (short fallow-maize, FM vs legume-maize, LM) and two positions (within the row of crops, W-row vs between the rows of crops, B-row). The results revealed that LM had greater specific hydraulic conductivity, Kpc in its macroporosity (>1000 µm) than FM due to greater number of effective pores, Npc and effective porosity, εpc. Soil water content, θ was greater under IT than under NT at higher soil water matric potential, Ψ (≥-3 cm H2O), whilst the opposite was observed at lower Ψ (≤ − 50 cm H2O). Long-term NT showed greater hydraulic conductivity, K at higher Ψ (≥ − 10 cm H2O) than IT, and no difference at lower Ψ. Although IT had greater pore volume, ϕpc than NT in the macroporosity and coarse mesoporosity (1000–60 µm) pore size classes, NT had two times greater Kpc than IT due to increased Npc, εpc, and pore continuity, Cwpc. K(Ψ) and pore characteristics showed spatial variations (W-row vs B-row). W-row had significantly greater K at higher Ψ (≥ − 3 cm H2O) than B-row. Temporal dynamics of soil hydraulic properties and pore characteristics were not evident under IT during crop succession. This study shows that LM increases specific hydraulic conductivity of soil macroporosity by increasing the number of effective macropores and the effective porosity. In a Mediterranean climate, this may improve the hydrological functions of agricultural soil and associated crop yield. Further, long-term NT formed a stable number of effective macropores and coarse mesopores, and showed a greater pore continuity in coarse and fine mesopores, resulting in improved soil water flux. The authors thank the support given by Dr. Stefan Fenner, the visiting Ph.D. candidate Mehrdad Soranj, Prof. Concha Ramos, the field and laboratory technicians Carlos Cortés and Silvia Martí, and the farmer Xavier Penella. The authors gratefully acknowledge support for this research from the Research Spanish Agency (DISOSMED Project - AGL2017-84529-C3-R). Rasendra Talukder also sincerely acknowledges the fund provided by University of Lleida to support its PhD fellowship. Daniel Plaza-Bonilla is Ramón y Cajal fellow (RYC-2018-024536-I) co-funded by MICIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and European Social Fund.

Crop diversification is becoming increasingly important for preserving soil and ecosystems’ health and, subsequently, crop productivity and sustainability. Intercropping practices adopted in monocultural woody crops, with herbaceous crops covering the otherwise bare alleyways, foster ecological interactions and can provide both environmental and economic advantages. In this study, intercropping practices were implemented in a traditional mandarin orchard in south-eastern Spain, which was monitored for three years to assess their impact on the environmental footprint and profitability. The footprint was quantified with a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA), while the costs and revenues assessment was based on materials, labor, and machinery used in the trial. The calculated LCA indicators evidenced that, although the cultivated surface area increases with the integration of the intercrops (fava bean, purslane, cowpea, and barley/vetch mix), this does not imply any additional detrimental effects (resource depletion, acidification, eutrophication, global warming). The economic analysis showed that while intercrops may involve additional production costs, the correct choice of intercrops, purslane, and fava bean, in this case, can reduce the market risks for farmers. Overall, this study shows that positive environmental and economic impacts are to be expected of co-integrated herbaceous crops within the same field as mandarin trees.

In the context of EU project DiverIMPACTS, the focus of WP5 is to map barriers to crop diversification and to identify relevant strategies to overcome these barriers in order to facilitate and accelerate the transition to diversified cropping systems. Based on the previous identification of barriers (Morel et al., 2020) and operational solutions (see report 'Addressing barriers to crop diversification: key elements of solutions identified across 25 case studies’), the roles of actors were further discussed and translated into key recommendations for key actors (policy makers, value chain actors, and farm-level solutions). These recommendations were presented at the Final Conference of DiverIMPACTS in March 2022, and are presented here as a key messages and recommendations paper., Contact: sytra@uclouvain.be

In the context of EU project DiverIMPACTS, the focus of WP5 is to mapbarriers to crop diversification and toidentify relevant strategies to overcome these barriers in order to facilitate and accelerate the transition to diversified cropping systems.Based on the previous identification of barriers (Morel et al., 2020) and operational solutions (see report 'Addressing barriers to crop diversification: key elements of solutions identified across 25 case studies’), the roles of actors were further discussed and translated into key recommendations for key actors (policy makers, value chain actors, and farm-level solutions). These recommendations were presented at the Final Conference of DiverIMPACTS in March 2022, and are presented hereas a key messages and recommendations paper.

The DiverIMPACTS policy brief contains the following key messages The implementation of crop diversification requires multiple changes, not only within farming systems but also in terms of creation and development of new value chains. Targeting support to the many actors that compose and contribute to new value chains, and ensuring better coordination, are thus critical to the creation and development of crop diversification. Key policy recommendations include the allocation of public and private resources towards actors involved in crop diversification, with special attention paid to the starting and scaling-out phases; and specific support aiming at mitigating or sharing the investment costs and risks along value chains, e.g. through the development of innovative contracts and subsidies schemes. Creating a favorable environment including regulatory stability for new crops, as well as undertaking wide communication campaigns, are critical to reach an increased share for crop diversification products. &nbsp

This policy brief addressed the following key messages: Actionable knowledge is context-specific knowledge that assists actors in their decision-making to be better positioned to achieve their goals. Producing actionable knowledge with Multi-Actor Approaches requires more than gathering ‘multiple actors’ around the table; it requires attention for the settings and processes that stimulate social learning, empower actors, and build social capital leading to consensus for action. Effective actionable knowledge production is based on mutual understanding, trust, and a common vision among researchers and societal actors; consortia should be enabled to stimulate social learning and build this social capital both before as well as over the course of a project. The inherent unpredictability of innovation processes requires funding schemes that foster adaptive, learning-oriented project governance approaches replacing the accountability-focused schemes currently in place More experimentation with innovation-sensitive funding instruments is needed to better understand how to effectively cross-pollinate scientific and practitioner knowledge and address pressing global issues. &nbsp

A more resilient adaptation to changing climate calls for crop diversification in vineyards, too. As a contribution to the H2020 collaborative project of the European Union, called Diverfarming, and part of the agroecological experiments during 2018 and 2019, grapevine biomass growth was monitored in connection with carbon storage types in soil and in the deposits removed by soil erosion. Phenometry was carried out interpreting segmented images to follow changes in biomass. It was found that crop growth could be best described by the Richards growth function. The distinction between grapevine and intercrop growth, however, requires further refinement in image analysis. In the laboratory TOC and Ntotal were measured for both the soil and the plant organs as well as for the eroded sediments. Greenhouse gas emissions and photosynthesis were monitored. Looking at the change of Leaf Area Index (LAI) over the growing period, image analysis pointed out the role of cut shoots from pruning in the C and N cycles. Maximum leaf area (at ripening) for guyot cultivation technique was extimated at 7,840 m2 ha-1. Soil loss by erosion was established by sediment traps at the end of vinestock rows. The grain size distribution analysis led to the remarkable result that as erosion proceeded, the ratio of the sand fraction increased but remained within the range for the textural class of loam. Organic matter contents grew to 38 g kg-1. The rate of soil erosion is higher in ploughed than in grassed interrows by orders of magnitude.

This study examines whether the decision of crop diversification for perennial crops is based on risk attitudes and time preferences. We conducted incentivised field experiments with farmers only cultivating rubber and those cultivating rubber and oil palm. We utilised Holt and Laury task and Coller and William task. We found that farmers who cultivate two crops are more risk-averse, indicating that they see crop diversification as a safer option for their farms. However, the discount rates of the two groups are not significantly different. These results provide relevant information for policymakers who intend to either encourage or discourage oil palm cultivation. © 2020 The Authors. Journal of International Development published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

The sugar industry has shaped the development of Fiji's economy for over a century; but, for the past 15 years, sugarcane production has been declining. A study was undertaken of over 300 sugarcane farmers in Fiji to determine the benefits of crop diversification and to compare the level of profitability for farmers fully dedicated to sugarcane farming and sugarcane farmers who have diversified. The findings demonstrate that a farmer in the latter group was able to achieve 45% higher profitability than one in the former. Fiji has the potential to increase farm output from diversification, but the relevant stakeholders need to help farmers secure markets and provide appropriate guidance and training.

The French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) has established an ambitious experimental infrastructure (the CA-SYS platform) in autumn 2018 after 5 years of co-design with farmers, crop advisors and researchers. CA-SYS covers an area of 125ha divided into 42 fields. The originality of CA-SYS is that it is explicitly conceivedfor the design and evaluation of biodiversity-based and pesticide-free agroecological systems across agriculturallyrealistic scales. An agroecological system will comprise a matrix of fields of one (or a few) cropping systems over anumber of years interacting with adjacent semi-natural habitats (hedges, grass margin strips, flower strips). Thisspatio-temporal arrangement of fields and semi-natural habitats is considered as a coherent strategy, implemented to meet specific goals. CA-SYS has ambitious objectives, including a high multi-performance of systems (profitability and productivity identical to neighbouring farmers over a 10 year-horizon, low environmental impacts, etc.),by maximising the use of biological processes (biological control of pests, improving nitrogen cycling, etc.) andreducing the use of inputs (nitrogen, water, pesticides). Among the four pesticide-free cropping systems tested,CA-SYS tests 2 cropping systems implementing conservation tillage and agriculture principles: a permanent no-tillcover crop-based system (SD1) and a rotation no-till system (SD2). They are both 6-year crop rotation including 7cash crops (buckwheat is cropped as secondary crop in between winter barley and winter wheat). Soil remains covered as much as possible through a high temporal and spatial diversity of cropped-plants. Oilseed rape is croppedwith spring fababean and Berseem clover as companion crops. Fallow periods in between winter wheat/soyabeanis covered by two successive cover crops (i.e. summer and automn sown). Cereals are intercropped with legumes(wheat/fababean, spring barley/spring pea) to enhance crop complementarity. A mix of 4 cultivars are sown foroilseed rape and winter wheat to manage pests.

Structural change is a process in which the amount of labour, capital and land dedicated to agriculture (and other sectors) changes over time. In this study, we focus on the cases of Peru and Nicaragua using their two most recently administered agricultural censuses. The agricultural censuses permit us to identify dimensions and information available to study the process of structural change in Latin America over the last 20 years. The study includes a comparative analysis and policy recommendations based on the two most recent agricultural censuses administered in Nicaragua (2001 and 2011) and Peru (1994 and 2012). Processing and analysing information from these censuses contribute to identifying dimensions and information available to study the process of structural change in Latin America over the last 20 years. Evidence-based policymaking is increasingly more at the core of the United Nations and member countries’ activity. In the case of FAO, this type of study is crucial to build the knowledge body on which projects and activities are carried forward. The Hand-in-Hand (HiH) initiative is a key example in this context, as it aims at quantitatively identifying high-impact and high-agricultural potential areas in which to invest within developing countries. As Nicaragua and Peru are HiH’s target countries, this study will show very useful to learn about their recent experiences in agricultural transformations., FAO Document Repository: https://doi.org/10.4060/cc1723en

Soil data and metadata of soil microbial community structure, enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, β-glucosidase, leucine-aminopeptidase, alkaline phosphatase and arylsusfatase activities), N functional genes and earthworms from the different cases studies and long terms from WP4 "Impact of crop diversification on biodiversity", derived from H2020 Diverfarming project. The main objective of workpackage is to provide a scientific understanding of the link between diversified cropping systems, above- and belowground biodiversity, and the resulting ecosystem services provided by soil microorganisms, soil invertebrates and vegetation in agro-ecosystems. Soil organisms contribute to all biogeochemical cycles, Soil organic matter mineralization and stabilization, shape soil structure and have associations with plant species promoting growth and development. http://www.diverfarming.eu.

MwAPATA collected data for the Malawi Rural Agricultural Livelihoods Survey (MRALS) in 2019 to capture more-detailed, representative data on rural household agriculture and livelihoods in 8 tobacco growing districts of Malawi. This report introduces the MRALS design, describes the data collection, and presents descriptive statistics from key modules including demographics, land, crop and livestock production and marketing, and non-farm income.

Data and metadata of crop yield and quality from different cases studies and long terms from WP3 "Crop production and quality", derived from H2020 Diverfarming project. This workpackage provides robust and sound data about how diversified cropping systems with low-input practices and efficient use of resources have positive effects on crop production and quality, and so, farm yields and economic revenues for farmers is increased. This can increase trading productivity with high quality outputs, so improving the competitiveness of European agriculture in the global market. http://www.diverfarming.eu.

Over the last 50 years, agricultural intensification has led to simplified agricultural systemshighly dependent on fertilisers and pesticides, causing biodiversity loss, changes in the balanceof nutrients, water and soil contamination. The total amount of pesticides applied each yearin France makes it the main consumer of plant protection products in Europe, and arable cropsare currently the most pesticide-consuming production systems. Reducing pesticide use inarable crops is thus a major challenge. There is now evidence that crop diversification in time,with more diversified rotations, and in space, through crop mixtures, can help restoreecosystem services and represent a potential key lever to reduce pesticide use (Lechenet etal., 2016). However, research has often analysed the effects of crop mixtures on pesticide useover small areas (e.g., single plots or fields), whereas these effects need to be evaluated overlarger and more realistic spatial extents to fully assess their potential to reduce pesticide use.By focusing on species mixtures, we aim to (i) quantify the potential of crop mixtures forpesticide use reduction in France and (ii) identify the drivers of mixture use leading to itstemporal and spatial dynamics observed at a national scale.We combined data from a network of over 3000 farmers (DEPHY Farms) who voluntarilycommitted to reducing their use of pesticides, and the French Land Parcel IdentificationSystem (FLPIS). Data from the DEPHY network have been collected annually since 2010 andprovide information on farm location, cultivated crops and yield, farming management, andthe levels of pesticide use through the Treatment Frequency Index (TFI). The FLPIS is a Frenchwide database reporting information on the geographical coordinates of the fields, their area,cultivated crops, the type of management (organic or not) at field-scale. It is based on farmers’declaration for the Common Agriculture Policy subsidies. In the FLPIS, each field is attached toits farm through a unique identification number. More than 80% of the French farms arerepresented in the database, and since 2015, farmers have reported the species mixtures. Forthis reason, we only used data starting from 2015 until 2020.These databases provide information on the distribution of species mixtures cultivated inFrance and the related TFI levels. We compared the TFI levels of different species mixtureswith those of corresponding pure crops. For example, grain species mixtures (e.g., wheat,barley, or triticale mixed with pea or faba bean) and annual fodder mixtures (e.g., triticale,oat, and pea) were compared with pure wheat, and rapeseed undersown with companioncrops were compared with pure rapeseed. We assigned each farm of the FLPIS to a farmingSystem (e.g., arable or livestock farming) based on the type of crops cultivated.338We found significantly lower TFI for crop mixtures when compared with those of pure crops,confirming that crop mixtures are an effective lever to reduce the use of pesticides. Resultsindicated that from 2015 to 2020, the French arable land area cultivated with crop mixturesincreased, diffusing from hotspots. Organic agriculture is a strong driver for crop mixtures butis not the only one; in fact, livestock systems turn out to be strategic to foster cropdiversification. Indeed, grassland and fodder mixtures, directly used to feed animals, arecurrently the most widespread species mixtures in France, thus explaining that in some Frenchdistricts, more than 90% of crop mixture areas are cultivated in livestock systems. On thecontrary, cereals and oilseeds, primarily used in transformation processes, appear harder tovalue as mixtures.Lechenet et al. 2016. Profiling farming management strategies with contrasting pesticide usein France. Agricultural Systems.

Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, ISSN:2296-665X

Despite many benefits provided by diversified cropping systems, there is a dearth of empirical evidence on the economic relevance of their effects, mainly due to lack of information on the dynamics of farmers’ crop acreages. Our article contributes to fill this gap and, thereby, to shed light on a pair of apparently contradictory facts. European farmers tend to stick to specialized crop acreages despite agronomic experiments tending to show that crop diversification couldreduce chemical input uses while maintaining or even enhancing arable crop yield levels We provide estimates of the effects of previous crops and crop acreage diversity on yield and chemical input use levels based on a sample of 769 arable crop producers covering the Marne département in France from 2008 to 2014. Our farm level dataset combines cost accounting data, information on crop sequences as well as detailed soil and weather data. Our estimation approach relies on yield functions and input use models defined as systems of simultaneous equations. These models feature farm specific random parameters for accounting for unobserved heterogeneity across farms and farmers as well as for accommodating input use endogeneity in the considered empirical crop yield functions.We estimate pre crop and crop acreage diversity effects for four major crops in the area. Pre crops effects on yields are estimated relatively accurately and are generally consistent with the rankings provided by crop production experts. Estimated pre crop effects on input uses are small and insignificant from a statistical viewpoint despite our large sample, suggesting that pre crops don’t impact much chemical input requirements or/and that farmers tend to downplay theseeffects when deciding their chemical input use levels. Our results also show that crop acreage diversity positively impacts yield levels and tend to induce reductions in pesticide uses, herbicide uses in particular. Overall, our results demonstrate statistically significant though economically limited effects of pre crops and crop acreage diversity on crop gross margins. They also suggest that policy measures aimed to foster crop diversification are unlikely to significantly reducechemical input uses on major crops if they are not supplemented by measures specifically aimed to reduce the uses of these inputs., Malgré les nombreux bénéfices qu’apportent les systèmes de culture diversifiés, on manque aujourd’hui de preuves empiriques sur la valeur économique de leurs effets agronomiques. Ceci est principalement dû à un manque d’informations sur la dynamique des assolements des agriculteurs. Notre article contribue à combler cette lacune : nous estimons les effets de précédents culturaux et de la diversification des cultures assolées sur les rendements et les utilisations d'intrants chimiques à partir d'un échantillon de 769 producteurs de grandes cultures dans la Marne observés entre 2008 et 2014. Notre ensemble de données combine des données de comptabilité analytique des exploitations, des informations sur les séquences de cultures obtenues à partir de données administratives ainsi que des données détaillées sur la qualité des sols et sur la météo. Notre approche d'estimation repose sur des fonctions de rendement et d’utilisations d’intrants sur les cultures définis comme des systèmes d'équations simultanées. Ces modèles comportent des paramètres aléatoires spécifiques à chaque exploitation pour tenir compte de l'hétérogénéité non observée des exploitations et des agriculteurs ainsi que de l'endogénéité des intrants dans les fonctions empiriques de rendement considérées. Nous estimons les effets précédents culturaux et diversification des assolements pour les quatre cultures principales de la région. Les effets des précédents culturaux sur les rendements sont estimés assez précisément et correspondent généralement aux classements fournis par les experts agronomes. Les effets estimés des précédents culturaux sur les utilisations d’intrants sont faibles et non significatifs d'un point de vue statistique malgré notre large échantillon, ce qui suggère que les agriculteurs ont tendance à peu en tenir compte lorsqu'ils décident de leurs niveaux d'utilisation d'intrants chimiques. Nos résultats montrent également que la diversité des cultures assolées, lorsqu'elle est décrite par un ensemble d'indicateurs approprié, a un impactpositif sur les niveaux de rendement et tend à induire une réduction des utilisations de pesticides, des herbicides en particulier. Dans l'ensemble, nos résultats démontrent des effets statistiquement significatifs mais économiquement limités des précédents culturaux et de la diversification des assolements sur les marges brutes des cultures. Ils suggèrent également que les mesures politiques visant à encourager la diversification des cultures sont peu susceptibles de réduire de manière significative les utilisations d'intrants chimiques sur les principales cultures si elles ne sont pas complétées par des mesures visant spécifiquement à réduire ces utilisations d’intrants.

Aquest article pertany al número especial: "Evaluation and Prevention of Mycotoxin Contamination and Toxicological Effects" Agronomic factors can affect mycotoxin contamination of maize, one of the most produced cereals. Maize is usually harvested at 18% moisture, but it is not microbiologically stable until it reaches 14% moisture at the drying plants. We studied how three agronomic factors (crop diversification, tillage system and nitrogen fertilization rate) can affect fungal and mycotoxin contamination (deoxynivalenol and fumonisins B1 and B2) in maize at harvest. In addition, changes in maize during a simulated harvest-till-drying period were studied. DON content at harvest was higher for maize under intensive tillage than using direct drilling (2695 and 474 μg kg−1, respectively). We found two reasons for this: (i) soil crusting in intensive tillage plots caused the formation of pools of water that created high air humidity conditions, favouring the development of DON-producing moulds; (ii) the population of Lumbricus terrestris, an earthworm that would indirectly minimize fungal infection and mycotoxin production on maize kernels, is reduced in intensive tillage plots. Therefore, direct drilling is a better approach than intensive tillage for both preventing DON contamination and preserving soil quality. Concerning the simulated harvest-tilldrying period, DON significantly increased between storage days 0 and 5. Water activity dropped on the 4th day, below the threshold for DON production (around 0.91). From our perspective, this study constitutes a step forward towards understanding the relationships between agronomic factors and mycotoxin contamination in maize, and towards improving food safety. This work is part of the R+D+I project PID2020-114836RB-I00, financed by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/ 501100011033. B.B.-V. and J.F.-O. have been funded by the FD pre-doctoral fellowship (PRE2018- 085278 and PRE2018-084610 respectively) of the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.

Gas, erosion, runoff and soil data and metadata of the different cases studies and long terms from WP5 "Environmental impact and delivery of ecosystem services by crop diversification", derived from H2020 Diverfarming project. This workpackage has been designed to provide sound and robust scientific understanding of the benefits and drawbacks of the tailored diversified cropping systems for improvement of the environmental quality and delivery of ecosystem services in each pedoclimatic region. http://www.diverfarming.eu.

Robots are widely expected—and pushed—to transform open-field agriculture, but these visions remain wedded to optimizing monocultural farming systems. Meanwhile there is little pull for automation from ecology-based, diversified farming realms. Noting this gap, we here explore the potential for robots to foster an agroecological approach to crop production. The research was situated in The Netherlands within the case of pixel cropping, a nascent farming method in which multiple food and service crops are planted together in diverse assemblages employing agroecological practices such as intercropping and biological pest control. Around this case we engaged with a variety of specialists in discussion groups, workshops, and design challenges to explore the potential of field robots to meet the multifaceted demands of highly diverse agroecological cropping systems. This generated a spectrum of imaginations for how automated tools might—or might not—be appropriately used, ranging from fully automated visions, to collaborative scenarios, to fully analogue prototypes. We found that automating agroecological cropping systems requires finding ways to imbue the ethos of agroecology into designed tools, thereby seeking to overcome tensions between production aims and other forms of social and ecological care. We conclude that a rethinking of automation is necessary for agroecological contexts: not as a blueprint for replacing humans, but making room for analogue and hybrid forms of agricultural work. These findings highlight a need for design processes which include a diversity of actors, involve iterative design cycles, and incorporate feedback between designers, practitioners, tools, and cropping systems.

International audience; Cropping system design is being transformed through the twofold evolution of agricultural practices for an agroecological transition, and of equipment diversification for agrotechnical needs. Among the most well-known drivers there are genetic selection, crop diversification, protein and energy autonomy. Protein and energy autonomy but also crop diversification could be achieved by reintroducing pulses into farming systems. The availability of specific equipment might be the simplest prerequisite for developing agroecological farming practices while supporting these goals. However, the links between pulses and agri-equipment are not clarified in the literature. The aim of this study is to understand recent historical and current links between pulses and equipment and to gain insight into the suitability or even to find shortcomings concerning pulses and available agri-equipment. To this end, 21 key informants were identified in the agronomical, sociotechnical, economic, and political sectors in France. We asked them four questions: (i) Can you describe your professional functions? (ii) Do you think that equipment is related to the design of the culture system? (iii) Do you think that pulses require specific equipment? (iv) How do you define agroecology? Respondents’ profiles are equally distributed into profiles directly related to the farmer and profiles not directly related to farmers. All 21 respondents answered questions (ii) and (iv). Only 14 respondents answered question (iii), and most of them are directly related to the farmer. We note that pulses do not require specific agri-equipment in a conventional system. The need for agri-equipment is found in the soil conservation approach where pulses are combined with other crops. Soil conservation approaches appear to achieve agroecological goals through the reintroduction of legumes and the decarbonization of energy associated with reduced mechanical costs and CO₂ emissions. This article presents expert opinions on the impact of equipment in the adaptation of agroecological practices as well as insights into the existing blockages of equipment in relation to soil conservation practices.

Despite many benefits provided by diversified cropping systems, there is a dearth of empirical evidence on the economic relevance of their effects, mainly due to lack of information on the dynamics of farmers’ crop acreages. Our article contributes to fill this gap and, thereby, to shed light on a pair of apparently contradictory facts. European farmers tend to stick to specialized crop acreages despite agronomic experiments tending to show that crop diversification could reduce chemical input uses while maintaining or even enhancing arable crop yield levels We provide estimates of the effects of previous crops and crop acreage diversity on yield and chemical input use levels based on a sample of 769 arable crop producers covering the Marne département in France from 2008 to 2014. Our farm level dataset combines cost accounting data, information on crop sequences as well as detailed soil and weather data. Our estimation approach relies on yield functions and input use models defined as systems of simultaneous equations. These models feature farm specific random parameters for accounting for unobserved heterogeneity across farms and farmers as well as for accommodating input use endogeneity in the considered empirical crop yield functions. We estimate pre crop and crop acreage diversity effects for four major crops in the area. Pre crops effects on yields are estimated relatively accurately and are generally consistent with the rankings provided by crop production experts. Estimated pre crop effects on input uses are small and insignificant from a statistical viewpoint despite our large sample, suggesting that pre crops don’t impact much chemical input requirements or/and that farmers tend to downplay these effects when deciding their chemical input use levels. Our results also show that crop acreage diversity positively impacts yield levels and tend to induce reductions in pesticide uses, herbicide uses in particular. Overall, our results demonstrate statistically significant though economically limited effects of pre crops and crop acreage diversity on crop gross margins. They also suggest that policy measures aimed to foster crop diversification are unlikely to significantly reduce chemical input uses on major crops if they are not supplemented by measures specifically aimed to reduce the uses of these inputs.

Soil health and function is one of the most important components for sustainable management of woody orchards. Intensive use of machinery and tillage creates heavy pressure on agroecosystems by altering the soil physicochemical and biological characteristics. In this study we aimed to assess the changes in soil physicochemical properties and the soil bacterial community structure, as well as the main drivers involved in shifts in the microbial community following 10 years implementing reduced tillage and reduced tillage plus green manure in a rainfed Mediterranean almond orchard. The treatments were: i) conventional tillage (CT); ii) reduced tillage (RT); and iii) reduced tillage and diversification with Avena sativa and Vicia sativa (RTD). After ten years, the results showed that the different managements had no significant effect on almond yields. RTD significantly increased total organic carbon (TOC), with an average content of 19.5 g kg−1 compared to 17.1 g kg−1 in CT. RTD also contributed to an increase in the fraction of soil macro-aggregates. Both RT and RTD significantly increased soil total nitrogen (NT) and particulate organic carbon (POC). However, other physical and chemical variables such as exchangeable Ca, Mg and K, bioavailable Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn, cation exchange capacity, bulk density, wilting point and field capacity were not significantly affected by the management. The bacterial community significantly changed with management: RTD showed a higher relative abundance of the family Solirubrobacteraceae and the genera Streptomyces and Solirubrobacter. The bacterial community structure was explained by changes in TOC, POC, pH, and NT values. Thus, a combination of reduced tillage and green manure could represent an appropriate sustainable management for rainfed almond orchards in very fragile environmental conditions, due to an increase in soil organic matter, total nitrogen, and the higher presence of beneficial bacteria related to soil productivity. This work was supported by the European Commission Horizon 2020 project Diverfarming [grant agreement 728003]. We acknowledge the owners of the farm “Los Alhagüeces”, Antonio and Pepe Escámez, for generously letting us work in their farm for the last 12 years.

Assessing progress towards healthier people, farms and landscapes through nutrition-sensitive agriculture (NSA) requires transdisciplinary methods with robust models and metrics. Farm-household models could facilitate disentangling the complex agriculture-nutrition nexus, by jointly assessing performance indicators on different farm system components such as farm productivity, farm environmental performance, household nutrition, and livelihoods. We, therefore, applied a farm-household model, FarmDESIGN, expanded to more comprehensively capture household nutrition and production diversity, diet diversity, and nutrient adequacy metrics. We estimated the potential contribution of an NSA intervention targeting the diversification of home gardens, aimed at reducing nutritional gaps and improving livelihoods in rural Vietnam. We addressed three central questions: (1) Do ‘Selected Crops’ (i.e. crops identified in a participatory process) in the intervention contribute to satisfying household dietary requirements?; (2) Does the adoption of Selected Crops contribute to improving household livelihoods (i.e. does it increase leisure time for non-earning activities as well as the dispensable budget)?; and (3) Do the proposed nutrition-related metrics estimate the contribution of home-garden diversification towards satisfying household dietary requirements? Results indicate trade-offs between nutrition and dispensable budget, with limited farm-household configurations leading to jointly improved nutrition and livelihoods. FarmDESIGN facilitated testing the robustness and limitations of commonly used metrics to monitor progress towards NSA. Results indicate that most of the production diversity metrics performed poorly at predicting desirable nutritional outcomes in this modelling study. This study demonstrates that farm-household models can facilitate anticipating the effect (positive or negative) of agricultural interventions on nutrition and the environment, identifying complementary interventions for significant and positive results and helping to foresee the trade-offs that farm-households could face. Furthermore, FarmDESIGN could contribute to identifying agreed-upon and robust metrics for measuring nutritional outcomes at the farm-household level, to allow comparability between contexts and NSA interventions.

How does the composition of a collection of individuals affect its outcome in competition with other collections of individuals? Assuming that individuals can be different, we develop a model to interpolate between individual-level interactions and collective-level consequences. Rooted in theoretical mathematics, the model is not constrained to any specific context. Potential applications include research, education, sports, politics, ecology, agriculture, algorithms and finance. Our first main contribution is a game theoretic model that interpolates between the internal composition of an ensemble of individuals and the repercussions for the ensemble as a whole in competition with others. The second main contribution is the rigorous identification of all equilibrium points and strategies. These equilibria suggest a mechanistic underpinning for biological and physical systems to tend towards increasing diversity due to the strength it imparts to the system in competition with others.

In this article we aim at quantifying the impact of the crop diversification measure implemented in France as part of the 2013 CAP greening reform. While numerous studies assess the impact of the measure using simulation models, none uses causal treatment methods or ex-post data. We exploit a discontinuity in the constraints imposed on farms over and under 30ha, respectively, and apply an OLS-FE method with a regression discontinuity setup on land use data collected from a representative sample of French farmers before and after reform implementation. We find that the crop diversification measure increases both compliance with the measure and the number of crops grown by farms greater than 30ha. Furthermore, graphical analyses suggest that farms over and under 30ha responded differently to the reform.