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Tsunami risk is dynamic as all elements (i.e., hazard, exposure, and vulnerability) have long- and short-term variability. The short-term variability is mainly due to the variation of human exposure during evacuation. Reliable evacuation modelling requires the adoption of agent-based frameworks that may be complicated to set up; therefore, several parameters must be defined appropriately. Once the agent-based model is deemed reliable, it is possible to integrate the agent-based evacuation modelling with stochastic tsunami hazard scenarios to compute the tsunami risk in terms of the number of people affected by the tsunami during the evacuation. We present the case of the Saga district of Kuroshio Town in Kochi Prefecture, Japan, where the anticipated tsunami from future tsunami from the Nankai-Tonankai subduction zone is very high, exceeding 20 m. For agent-based modelling, MATSim software is used. Stochastic earthquake source models for the Nankai-Tonankai tsunami are generated to perform stochastic tsunami inundation simulations. Subsequently, agent-based tsunami evacuation modelling is performed by considering four types of transportation modes. The stochastic tsunami simulations and agent-based evacuation modelling results are integrated to estimate the risk. Such an integrated framework is used to recommend tsunami fatality risk mitigation strategies in tsunami-prone regions. Results show that up to ~1,000 out of 2200 residents may get affected if car is the sole evacuation mode. Therefore, the coastal community is recommended to evacuate on foot. The developed integrated method can be extended to consider possible road blockages due to debris due to intense shaking., The 28th IUGG General Assembly (IUGG2023) (Berlin 2023)

Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is a clinical condition with a high risk of progression to dementia. One of its most common consequences is a difficulty in people's ability to remember past information and events, caused by an impairment of their long-term episodic memory system (Winblad et al. 2004; Dubois et al. 2007; Petersen et al. 2014). MCI may also damage people’s ability to follow and understand a situation as it unfolds and to recall it soon after it happens. While many studies have demonstrated the long-term memory episodic difficulties that adults with MCI experience (Della Sala et al. 2005; Irish et al. 2011; Walsh et al. 2014), there is a paucity of research investigating if this impairment also extends to their comprehension and immediate memory. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to test if individuals with MCI, who experience memory difficulties, also show problems in comprehending ongoing information and in recalling it immediately afterwards. The present study is based on a prominent theory of event comprehension, called “Event segmentation theory” (EST; Zacks & Tversky, 2001; Zacks et al. 2007). According to this theory, when people experience an event (e.g., listening to the TV news), they create and maintain a description of the current situation in their immediate memory for a short period of time, and then they transfer this information in their long-term memory when they detect a change (called “event boundary”) in the ongoing situation (e.g., the news switches to a different story). Detecting event changes helps people to ascribe those happenings to distinct situations and facilitates their storage in memory and their subsequent retrieval. Our study will test this theory by using a task that probes the detection and memory of event changes. The task will require participants to listen to short stories containing two separate activities (e.g., looking for car keys then making a sandwich; change of events, multiple situations) and equally long stories containing just one activity (e.g., looking for car keys; no change of events, single situation), and to recall them immediately and after an hour delay. In line with the existing literature (e.g., Della Sala et al. 2005; Irish et al. 2011; Walsh et al. 2014), adults with MCI who typically experience memory problems, should find it difficult to recall an event after a long delay, regardless of whether the event describes a single situation or multiple situations. However, MCI individuals may also show difficulties in comprehending and recalling an event immediately after it happens, if that event describes multiple situations. This is because the switch between different situations requires the ability to detect the change of situation and safely store the previous situation in long-term memory, in order to build a new description of the current situation. MCI individuals might find it difficult to detect changes between situations, as even healthy older adults typically show less agreement than younger adults in establishing when event changes occur, while watching movies or reading narratives (Zacks et al. 2006; Kurby and Zacks, 2011; Magliano et al. 2012). Difficulties in detecting event changes should impair their ability to store an event in memory and retrieve it, even immediately after its presentation. By contrast, MCI individuals should be able to comprehend and recall immediately more simple events describing a single situation that does not involve changes.

Our senses continuously receive a massive amount of information from the world around us, yet we are almost always able to make sense of what is happening, with little effort. This likely happens because we have a natural tendency to chunk experience into meaningful units. These units have been called event or situation models, as they describe the key elements of an event or situation, such as, what is happening, where, when, and who is involved. Event boundaries occur when the current event model no longer adequately summarizes what is happening and a new one is required. The structuring of continuous information using event models has profound effects on how we perceive, comprehend, and remember our experiences. At the level of brain activity measured using fMRI, it has been shown that event models are associated with relatively specific patterns of activity which are present during event perception and recall. These event-specific activity patterns may reflect the neural representation of event models and have been shown to be relatively stable during events and shift at event boundaries. The mechanisms that underpin event segmentation and the factors that influence the neural representation of events are not well understood. Changes in multiple dimensions, like locations, people, their actions, have been proven to affect the way in which individuals segment events (e.g., Zacks et al. 2009; Magliano and Zacks, 2011; Huff et al. 2014), and which brain regions are involved in event processing (Speer et al. 2007, 2009; Yarkoni et al. 2008; Zacks et al. 2011; Ezzyat & Davachi, 2011). Therefore, the main aim of the present study is to clarify what information is included in the neural representation of events. Specifically, we will examine the possibility that the intentions, actions and goals of the people present in a situation play a critical role in event perception at the behavioural and neural level. We will test whether changes to the narrative of short stories, corresponding to shifts in the actions and goals of the protagonists, result in changes to the neural representation of the stories. Other changes within the stories, such as the locations and people present, will be controlled. We will use custom written short stories describing life-like situations. Human participants will listen to these stories while being scanned with functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), and their memory for them will be tested after scanning.

The Seismic Safety and Resilience of Schools in Nepal (SAFER) project has an important aim of producing improved tools for geotechnical and earthquake engineers to assess seismic hazard in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Geo-databases have the potential to offer geotechnical practitioners means to improve a-priori predictions of important soil parameters in geotechnical design. In this paper, some recent work to develop a new database of geotechnical information (SAFER/GEO-591) including shear wave velocity measurements is reported. Attempts to develop new transformation models to better predict shear wave velocity from more basic parameters such as SPT-N values are presented. Use of kriging to better map shear wave velocity for the study area is recommended as a suitable alternative to the presented correlations.

Rainfall-triggered landslides are an ‘everyday risk’ to Small Island States, such as Saint Lucia in the Caribbean, and have the potential to destroy or damage buildings and disrupt lifelines such as roads and pipelines. To better evaluate these landslide hazards, efforts have been made to develop decision-support tools linking rainfall scenarios to stability for different types of road cut slope. Many thousands of stochastic simulations can be performed using a combined hydrology and slope stability model (CHASM) which requires inputs of slope cross-sectional geometry, soil and hydrological parameters which allows representative rainfall-triggered landslide scenarios to be produced. To use CHASM for this purpose the statistical variation of the relevant geotechnical properties such as friction angle needs to be assessed. This paper presents the analysis of an updated database for Saint Lucian soils that has been compiled using data supplied by the Government of Saint Lucia Ministry of Infrastructure, Port Services and Transport. The Coefficient of Variation values of the key soil mechanics parameters are reported and previously developed transformation models for estimating effective friction angle are updated. The Weibull statistical distribution is shown to be the best fit to the friction angle data.

This paper presents a sensitivity study of simulation-based Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) for Kathmandu, Nepal. Two aspects are investigated in detail: (i) the technique for simulating fault ruptures compatible with scaling laws and fitting into the Main Himalayan Trust (MHT) and (ii) the choice of different Ground Motion Prediction Equations (GMPEs). Since the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, a number of new studies have provided new approaches to model the MHT as a single seismic source. This more realistic characterization of the MHT has resulted in higher peak ground acceleration (PGA) for all of Nepal and in particular for the Kathmandu Valley. Here, the results of a new simulation-based code are compared with those by the software OpenQuake. It is specifically assessed how different source simulation methods influence the hazard calculations. Furthermore, the influence of different GMPEs assumed for subduction earthquakes is assessed for the specific case of Kathmandu, which is only 11 km above the MHT. Results show that because of the proximity to the megathrust, the estimated hazard is very sensitive to different choices.The results of this study may be useful for informing ongoing efforts in Nepal to update the building code with a new seismic hazard map. Understanding the sensitivity and robustness of PSHA is critical from a policy and preparedness perspective.

The Kathmandu Valley is within a seismically active region with only few recorded strong-motion data. Geophysical information in the Valley is also sparse. In addition, the absence of an open database which compiles in situ geophysical tests, borehole records, and geotechnical laboratory data is affecting the advancement of knowledge in the region. This article presents SAFER/GEO-591 database, named after the Engineering and Physical Science Research Council (EPSRC)-funded project Seismic Safety and Resilience of Schools in Nepal (SAFER). SAFER/GEO-591 contains data from groundwater wells and boreholes originally commissioned for research and commercial purposes. This work describes (1) the quality assessment and harmonization process conducted on the dataset, (2) the variation of shear-wave velocity (V_S) measurements and geotechnical parameters with depth and elevation in the Valley, (3) the current understanding of the Valley sediment/bedrock topography, and finally (4) new geological cross sections. A companion article presents an updated V_(S30) map across the Valley based on the contributions of this article. The database can be downloaded from the University of Bristol repository via DOI: https://doi.org/10.5523/bris.3gjcvx51lnpuv269xsa1yrb0rw.

Out-of-plane (OOP) is a recurrent seismic damage pattern for unreinforced masonry (URM) constructions. It is usually triggered by insufficient wall-to-wall and wall-to-floor connections. This situation is rather common in Nepal where most of the URM buildings lack of seismic detailing. Therefore, to execute a reliable vulnerability assessment, OOP needs to be considered when dealing with Nepalese masonry constructions. This is generally done by calculating the wall OOP capacity in terms of a force-displacement (F-D) curve. By adopting an analytical solution previously developed by the authors, this work investigates the sensitivity of out-of-plane failure to uncertain input parameters of Nepali URMs. A representative wall from a typical single-story brick-in-mud school building is considered in the analysis. Tornado diagrams are adopted to quantify the influence of the seven relevant input quantities over the OOP force-displacement curve. The results of the sensitivity analysis can be used to prioritize data collection and material testing for the most influential parameters.

The challenge of nowcasting and forecasting the effect of natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes, floods, hurricanes) on assets, people and society is of primary importance for assessing the ability of such systems to recover from extreme events. Traditional disaster recovery estimates, such as surveys and interviews, are usually costly, time consuming and do not scale. Here we present a methodology to indirectly estimate the post-emergency recovery status ('downtime') of small businesses in urban areas looking at their online posting activity on social media. Analysing the time series of posts before and after an event, we quantify the downtime of small businesses for three natural disasters occurred in Nepal, Puerto Rico and Mexico. A convenient and reliable method for nowcasting the post-emergency recovery status of economic activities could help local governments and decision makers to better target their interventions and distribute the available resources more effectively.

Reliable probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) for Nepal is a long-term goal that different researchers have been working on in the last decade. Especially after the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, several classical probabilistic seismic hazard analysis studies have been carried out for the entire Nepal. Herein, an alternative simulation-based PSHA is performed for the Kathmandu basin generating a stochastic catalogue of events using information about seismogenic zones from recent research studies. Different ground motion prediction equations have been adopted. Results show the necessity for a ground motion prediction model that is tailored for Nepal.

The present thesis addresses the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying the construction of mental events and its role in decision-making. A specific form of mental event construction, episodic future thinking (EFT), has been a topic of intense inquiry, due to its purported adaptive role. EFT shares cognitive and neural mechanisms with episodic remembering, which has fuelled the discussion on its core component processes. To this aim, different theories have been advanced, focussing on the reconstructive nature of past memories, recombined into novel experiences, the self-projection into alternative situations underlying most forms of mental simulations, or the mental construction of scenes, seen as the backbones of either past, future and atemporal experiences. The first chapter delves into the relation between episodic memory and EFT, investigating multiple facets of future thinking in a patient with focal retrograde amnesia, and reveals that episodic remembering is crucial for EFT, less so for other forms of mental simulation for which semantic memory suffices, or for future-oriented decision making. The second chapter explores the neural bases of mental future event construction in patients with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), confirming a deficit in EFT in vmPFC patients, while excluding that this deficit depends on impairments in working memory or narrative abilities. The third chapter investigates whether a deficit in constructing (single) scenes may underly vmPFC patients' event construction impairment, studying scene construction in vmPFC and hippocampal patients. The chapter ends with a proposed model of the interaction of vmPFC and the hippocampus in which vmPFC initiates scene construction, and the hippocampus helps build cohesive scenes. The last chapter explores the adaptive role of EFT, showing that externally cueing EFT in vmPFC patients reduces their steep discounting of future rewards, further elucidating the role of vmPFC in mental event construction and in guiding future-oriented choice.

It has been suggested that the mental construction of scene imagery is a core process underpinning functions such as autobiographical memory, future thinking and spatial navigation. Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in humans can cause deficits in all of these cognitive domains. Moreover, it has also been reported that patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions are impaired at imagining fictitious scenes, although they seem able to describe specific scenes from autobiographical events. In general, not much is known about how ventromedial prefrontal cortex patients process scenes. Here, we deployed a recently-developed task to provide insights into this issue, which involved detecting either semantic (e.g. an elephant with butterflies for ears) or constructive (e.g. an endless staircase) violations in scene images. Identifying constructive violations typically provokes the formation of internal scene models in healthy control participants. We tested patients with bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex damage, brain-damaged control patients and healthy control participants. We found no evidence for statistically significant differences between the groups in detecting either type of violation. These results suggest that an intact ventromedial prefrontal cortex is not necessary for some aspects of scene processing, with implications for understanding its role in functions such as autobiographical memory and future thinking.

Traffic data identified from free, satellite imagery, such as historical imagery available on Google Earth, are collected and employed as possible indicator of business downtime after the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal. Business downtime is a crucial factor when assessing losses and it is also of great importance to insurance and reinsurance companies, particularly the downtime of private businesses, for which limited data is available. Currently, indicators of business recovery after natural disaster events either focus on damage or they are directly collected through costly procedures and none of the approaches available quantifies longer term recovery. In many cases, such data, when available, are not easy to access. There is a need for both time- and cost-effective methods to quantify business downtime that are not necessarily derived from physical damage and are able to describe both short-term and, potentially, long-term business recovery. The aim of this quantification refers to the recovery phase rather than the immediate emergency response in theaftermath of a natural disaster. Car and lorry numbers of four areas of Kathmandu were counted from historical images available on Google Earth. These four areas correlated to the four areas in which data related to business closures were obtained through interviews during a field investigation made by the authors in Kathmandu in November 2016 (18 months after the event). Food and health business closure data correlate very satisfactory with the calculated drop in car numbers.

Linear Time-History Analysis (LTHA) is employed as EC8-compliant design method for a regular 12-storey archetype Reinforced Concrete (RC) regular Moment Resisting Frame (MRF) including structural features typically not included such as stairs and considering different ground motions selection options. Firstly, a suite of seven pairs of spectrum-compatible ground motions from the European Strong Motion Database is used; secondly, the spectral-matching procedure for three pairs of ground motions suggested by the recent FEMA P-1050/2015 is adopted. The critical aspect is to find a balanced compromise between control of variability in the suite of ground motions, better suiting design purposes, without losing the opportunity to capture, at the design stage, part of the record-to-record variability in far-field and near-field conditions.Eurocodes are currently in the phase of review for a second-generation release; this study aims to deal with the gap in the code related to the possibility of designing structures through LTHA.The study employs a new definition of the Eurocode 8 behavior factor (i.e., strength reduction factor) for force-based approaches. Results of this study point to a paradigm shift in design towards a direct performance-based approach at design-stage. Preliminary comparisons suggest that a balance between the close spectral matching of FEMA P-1050/2015 and the current selection procedure of EC8 should be found for LTHA.

For assessment of slope stability in data-scarce regions prone to natural hazards, modelling relies, to a large degree, on estimates of the effective friction angle. Using a database, comprising soil data from Saint Lucia in the Eastern Caribbean, both simple regression and multiple linear regression analysis were performed. These analyses correlate various basic soil parameters with the effective friction angle measurements contained in the database. The developed statistical relationships are then employed for the estimation of the effective friction angle for use in a slope stability simulation scenario. These analyses show the narrowing of the expected range of results for the slope factor of safety when more soil parameters are used in the estimation of effective friction angle.

Highlights • The vmPFC and hippocampus are closely connected brain regions whose functions are still debated. • Here we directly compared the cognitive changes in humans with either bilateral hippocampal or bilateral vmPFC damage. • Hippocampal and vmPFC damage both affect classic ‘hippocampal’ tasks such as autobiographical memory recall. • Hippocampal and vmPFC damage have opposite effects on classic ‘vmPFC’ tasks such as moral decision making. • We propose a hierarchical network model where vmPFC initiates mental imagery including hippocampal scene construction., The hippocampus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are closely connected brain regions whose functions are still debated. In order to offer a fresh perspective on understanding the contributions of these two brain regions to cognition, in this review we considered cognitive tasks that usually elicit deficits in hippocampal-damaged patients (e.g., autobiographical memory retrieval), and examined the performance of vmPFC-lesioned patients on these tasks. We then took cognitive tasks where performance is typically compromised following vmPFC damage (e.g., decision making), and looked at how these are affected by hippocampal lesions. Three salient motifs emerged. First, there are surprising gaps in our knowledge about how hippocampal and vmPFC patients perform on tasks typically associated with the other group. Second, while hippocampal or vmPFC damage seems to adversely affect performance on so-called hippocampal tasks, the performance of hippocampal and vmPFC patients clearly diverges on classic vmPFC tasks. Third, although performance appears analogous on hippocampal tasks, on closer inspection, there are significant disparities between hippocampal and vmPFC patients. Based on these findings, we suggest a tentative hierarchical model to explain the functions of the hippocampus and vmPFC. We propose that the vmPFC initiates the construction of mental scenes by coordinating the curation of relevant elements from neocortical areas, which are then funneled into the hippocampus to build a scene. The vmPFC then engages in iterative re-initiation via feedback loops with neocortex and hippocampus to facilitate the flow and integration of the multiple scenes that comprise the coherent unfolding of an extended mental event.

Italian and Spanish seismic codes, conversely to Eurocode 8 and other relevant seismic codes worldwide, consider that wide-beam RC frames (WBF) cannot guarantee high ductility performances, thus they compel to adopt lower behaviour factors (q) than for conventional deep-beam frames (DBF). The reason may be the poorer local ductility of wide beams with respect to deep beams, together with an historical lack of confidence on WBF regarding force transfer within connections and higher lateral deformability. Aimed at verifying the appropriateness of such provisions, seismic performances of a typical Mediterranean 5-storey RC building designed alternatively with DBF and WBF according to Eurocode 8 and Spanish NCSE-02 are comparatively assessed through nonlinear static analyses. Later, a simplified parametric assessment is carried out for 72 frames designed to Eurocode 8, Italian NTC and NCSE-02 assuming similar q for WBF and DBF. Results suggest that WBF provide at least similar global seismic capacities than DBF, especially in frames whose design is ruled by damage limitation limit state. Hence, any reduction of qfor wide-beam frames in modern national codes appears to be at least obsolete.

A straightforward methodology, named FAST , for earthquake damage assessment of infilled reinforced concrete buildings, is carried out using the consolidated framework empl oyed in Performance Based Earthquake Engineering. FAST approach carries out peak ground acceler ation (PGA) capacities calculated from mean inelastic drift capacities of inf illed reinforced concrete (RC) moment resisting frame (MRF) buildings at various damage states. The damage states ar e classified according to EMS 98 scale. FAST covers the range from slight to heavy damage states (DS1 up to DS3), not including very heavy damage and destruction (DS4 and DS5). FAST is a spectral methodology and employs IN2 cu rves. Mean PGA capacities for infilled RC MRF buildings at DS1, DS2, and DS3 can be employed for preliminary prediction of damage. A calibration of FAST is herein provided through the evaluation of root mean square deviations from a set of post-earthquake inspections collected in the area of Pettino, L’Aquila, after the 2009 earthquake.

A straightforward vulnerability methodology, named FAST approach, for earthquake hazard assessment of infilled reinforced concrete buildings, is carried out using the consolidated probabilistic framework employed in Performance Based Earthquake Engineering. The FAST approach describes the vulnerability relationships (also called fragility curves) in terms of peak ground acceleration calculated from the estimated mean inelastic drift capacities of infilled RC buildings for various damage states. The damage states are classified according to EMS 98 scale and their thresholds are characterized by means of the FAST approach covering the range from slight to heavy damage states (from DS1 up to DS3), not including very heavy damage and destruction (the so called DS4 and DS5). DS4 and DS5 are not covered since the vulnerability relationships are carried out on the basis of the typical backbone characteristic of masonry infills, whose influence on damage can be easily quantified up to DS3. The approach followed is based on the capacity spectrum method and IN2 curves that allow switching from damage states characteristic drift to PGA capacity. The probabilistic formulation of the methodology, herein provided, is based on a previous deterministic approach validated on the basis of damage observed after 2011 Lorca (Spain) earthquake. Numerical fragilities show a fair agreement with observed data after Lorca earthquake.

On May 11, 2011 an earthquake of magnitude 5.1 (Mw) struck Murcia region causing 9 casualties and damage to buildings and infrastructures. Even if the main characteristics of the event would classify it as a moderate earthquake, the maximum PGA registered (equal to 0.37g) exceeded significantly the hazard at the site according to local code provisions. The latter is a result of directivity effects in the near source region. An overview of earthquake characteristics and a general study of the damage observed is provided. Finally, an approximate quantitative, large scale, explanation of the damage observed is carried out on the basis of recent literature findings. Notwithstanding the lack of proper structural design characterizing building stock in the area, most of the losses were caused by non-structural damage and, according to in field observations, it seems clear that masonry infills provided additional, “not designed”, strength to reinforced concrete buildings.

A generalized formulation of the FAST vulnerability method for Reinforced Concrete Moment Resisting Frame (RC-MRF) buildings with irregular distribution of infills in elevation is presented. This method, which belongs to the wider family of spectral-based methodologies for the simplified assessment of infilled RC MRF buildings, has been already proposed for uniformly infilled frames and applied in the case of post-earthquake damage survey results for benchmarking purposes. The generalized approach allows to consider a reduction of the amount of infills at the ground floor. Thus, this new form of FAST is capable of computing all intermediate situations between the uniformly infilled and pilotis (no infills at ground storey) cases. Finally, the approach provided is applied to the case of Lorca (Spain) 2011 earthquake damage survey data.

Earthquake engineering aims at the goal of controlling the seismic risk to socio-economically acceptable problems, encompassing multidisciplinary efforts from various branches of science and engineering. Such efforts in the last decades allowed structural engineering progressing towards an approach that can fit the general framework of the assessment and the control of seismic risk: performance based earthquake engineering (PBEE). PBEE represents a common platform for researchers and engineers. It is the frame in which the topics of this research have grown up. The first step of PBEE, hazard and ground motion, is discussed in the first part of this research. The employment of advanced intensity measures (IM) in Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) is investigated. New prediction equations for inelastic displacement and equivalent number of cycles based on the ITalian ACcelerometric Archive are provided as IMs for both peak and cyclic inelastic response of structures. This tool goes towards further enhancements of PSHA. Moreover it can be a tool for the validation of simulated scenario for a robust employment in the assessment of critical facilities and finally for it can play a role in future perspective of large scale risk assessment. Issues regarding ground motion selection for nonlinear dynamic analyses are then examined: the reliability of artificial records, wavelet adjusted and linearly scaled records is investigated within a code-based framework. The inelastic displacement of such records was shown to be statistically equivalent to the one of unscaled real records, given the same spectral constraint suggested by codes; on the other hand, regarding cyclic response artificial records showed their statistically significant overestimation that can cause problem when employed for specific facilities in which cyclic response has a significant role in the assessment of the seismic performances. The second step discussed is the aspect of seismic demand prediction and estimation. Analysis methodologies are described and their level of accuracy is discussed, focusing on specific code prescriptions concerning structural analysis. Some critical issues of the recent Italian Code regarding choice and applicability conditions of analysis methods are emphasized. Special attention is given to the static pushover analysis, a methodology nowadays in the between of research and practice. A review of the approximations implicit in this methodology is provided, focusing the attention on the piecewise linear approximation of the capacity curve. A methodology for the systematical investigation of this aspect is presented and then employed for the definition of an optimized fit for capacity curves allowing a reduction and, above all, a quantification of the error introduced by this step when performing nonlinear static analysis. The third step within the PBEE framework, and the final one of this research, deals with modeling of damage states. The damage measures for reinforced concrete (RC) structures are investigated. Limit states for reinforced concrete structures are considered, focusing on the aspects of brittle failures in existing reinforced concrete structures. The latter represents one of the most critical issues for existing reinforced concrete structures, given the absence of capacity design. Brittle failures in reinforced concrete (RC) elements are analyzed according to code provisions, considering different code approaches and the analytical models are finally compared with experimental data. Non conventional brittle modes of failures such as the sliding shear mechanism are reviewed, with special attention to the structural details that allow the development of sufficient capacity against this failure mode. Finally the influence of masonry infill on the whole structural behavior of RC structures is investigated. The whole aspect of damage measures in reinforced concrete structures is further examined by means of the result of a reconnaissance post earthquake campaign. 6th April 2009 L’Aquila event is considered, and performances of existing reinforced concrete buildings during the earthquake are reviewed. Finally the results of the in-field campaign allowed the analytical study of a soft storey collapse. The back analysis of the case study structure selected emphasized the critical aspects regarding brittle mode of failure and singles out the likely causes of the structural collapse. The whole research, through the above three step path, aims to focus on some critical issues providing some tools, suggesting enhancements in methodologies and procedures and finally outlining possible future perspectives for the PBEE framework. In fact, this consolidated spine for earthquake engineering, allows a separate focus on issues that can then be recombined in the multidisciplinary context of assessment and control of the seismic risk.

We investigated episodic future thinking (EFT) and future-based cognition and decision-making in patient SG, who developed a dense retrograde amnesia following hypoxia due to a cardiac arrest. Despite intact general cognitive and executive functioning, SG was unable to remember events from his entire lifetime. He had, however, relatively spared anterograde memory and general semantic knowledge. Voxel-based morphometry detected a reduction of gray matter in the thalamus, cerebellum and fusiform gyrus bilaterally, and, at a reduced threshold, in several regions of the autobiographical memory network, including the hippocampi. We show that SG is unable to imagine personal future events, but can imagine fictitious events not self-relevant and not located in subjective time. Despite severely impaired EFT, SG shows normal attitudes towards the future time, and normal delay discounting rates. These findings suggest that retrieval of autobiographical information from long-term memory is necessary for EFT. However, relatively spared anterograde memory and general semantic knowledge may be sufficient to allow construction of fictitious experiences. As well, EFT is not necessary to drive future-oriented cognition and choice. These findings highlight the relation between autobiographical memory and EFT, and the fractionation of human temporal consciousness. Moreover, they contribute to our understanding of retrograde amnesia as an impairment of memory as well as future thinking.

Given the interest earned recently by modern heritage structures, seismic assessment criteria of Eurocode 8, for ordinary reinforced concrete structures, are applied to a modern heritage RC building. The case study, the Tower of the Nations in Naples, allows a discussion on knowledge approaches, analysis methodologies and modeling choices that can be considered. Modal dynamic identification, in situ inspections, and testing provided the necessary knowledge of the structure. Linear and nonlinear models of the structure are built up accounting for tuff infills' stiffness and strength contribution. Numerical modal properties are compared with those obtained through dynamic identification. Lumped plasticity model for reinforced concrete elements and equivalent strut macro models for tuff and concrete infills are employed for the nonlinear model of the structure. Seismic assessment through nonlinear dynamic analyses is carried out for two Limit States. Finally, fragility curves through cloud analysis are obtained for the different limit states considered.

[EN] A simplified analytical method ("FAST") for the estimation of large-scale vulnerability of Reinforced Concrete (RC) Moment Resisting Frames with masonry infills is proposed and subsequently tested by using real damage scenario caused by the 2011 Lorca earthquake as a benchmark. FAST is a spectral-based approach that allows predicting the average non-structural Damage State expected for each class of building (defined by number of storeys, age of construction, infills ratio in plan and location) for a given demand level. It accounts for non-uniformity of infills in elevation, i.e. a reduction of infills ratio of the ground floor. FAST is based on: (i) the definition of approximated capacity curves of the infilled building, assuming that the RC frame is designed according to the corresponding seismic code; and on (ii) the assumption of "a priori" deformed shapes in accordance with the attainment of each non-structural damage state at 1st storey, estimated through experimental and numerical correlations. Two versions of FAST are proposed: a "simplified" approach aimed at the evaluation of uniformly infilled frames; and a "generalised" version which can account for any intermediate situation between uniformly infilled frames and pilotis frames (i.e. without infills at 1st storey). Also, some extensions of the method are highlighted. Aimed at testing FAST, the real damage scenario after the earthquake of Lorca (2011) is used as a benchmark, despite its impulsivity and directivity. In order to define the specific input parameters for the case study, information regarding ground motion, post-earthquake damage scenario and also building design practice must be collected. Hence, a detailed review of historical Spanish seismic codes and a critical analysis of current Spanish seismic code NCSE-02 in comparison with current reference performance-based codes such as Eurocode 8 are provided. Special emphasis is placed on provisions which can prevent a proper capacity design and that, in turn, can cause brittle failures or favour the interaction with infills. Also, the prescription of lower behaviour factor for wide-beam frames with respect to deep-beam frames -which is not present in most codes¿ is discussed; outcomes of several case studies suggest that such prescription is obsolete. Finally, FAST is applied to Lorca earthquake and predicted damage scenarios are obtained, considering different assumptions for input values. Results show proper agreement between predicted and real damages. Structural collapses were rarely observed, even though the PGA was three times higher than the typical acceleration of design, so FAST proves that masonry infills provided additional strength to RC frames., [ES] Se propone un método analítico simplificado ("FAST") para la estimación de la vulnerabilidad a gran escala de edificios porticados de hormigón armado con tabiquería de fábrica, posteriormente testeado mediante la adopción del escenario de daño real correspondiente al terremoto de Lorca de 2011 como patrón de comparación. FAST es un procedimiento espectral que permite predecir el nivel de daño no estructural medio esperado para cada clase de edificio (definido por su número de plantas, año de construcción, densidad de tabiquería en planta y localización geográfica), considerando un nivel de demanda dado. El método tiene en cuenta la irregularidad de la tabiquería en alzado, es decir, la posible reducción relativa de tabiquería en planta baja. FAST se basa en: (i) la definición de curvas de capacidad aproximadas para los edificios tabicados, asumiendo que la estructura de HA se ha proyectado según la norma sísmica correspondiente en cada caso; y en (ii) la asunción de deformadas "apriorísticas" coherentes con cada grado de daño (suponiendo que éste se alcanza siempre en planta baja), estimadas a través de correlaciones experimentales y numéricas. Se proponen dos versiones de FAST: una "simplificada" para la evaluación de edificios uniformemente tabicados en altura, y otra "generalizada", que es capaz de tener en cuenta cualquier situación intermedia entre el prototipo uniformemente tabicado y el de planta baja diáfana. Además, se proponen ciertas extensiones al método. A fin de validar FAST, se elige el escenario de daño real correspondiente al terremoto de Lorca (2011) como patrón de comparación, a pesar de su impulsividad y directividad. Para definir los parámetros de input correspondientes al caso de estudio, es necesario recopilar previamente la información concerniente a la señal sísmica, el escenario de daño y las características del parque construido. Por tanto, se lleva a cabo una revisión exhaustiva de las normas sísmicas históricas en España y un análisis crítico de la norma sísmica española actual NCSE-02 en comparación con otras normas actuales de referencia basadas en el desempeño, como el Eurocódigo 8, haciendo énfasis en las provisiones que no garantizan el diseño por capacidad y que por tanto pueden provocar mecanismos frágiles o favorecer la excesiva influencia de la tabiquería. Además, se discute sobre la restricción del coeficiente de ductilidad en estructuras de vigas planas, cuestión que no se refleja en otras normas. Los resultados obtenidos mediante análisis de casos de estudio muestran que dicha prescripción resulta obsoleta para normas actuales. Finalmente, FAST se aplica al caso del terremoto de Lorca, obteniéndose predicciones de daño medio para diferentes asunciones. Los resultados muestran una coincidencia aceptable entre la predicción y los daños reales. FAST confirma que la causa principal de la práctica ausencia de colapsos (ante un terremoto con PGA triple que la típica de proyecto) hay que buscarla en la contribución estructural de la tabiquería de fábrica., [CAT] Es proposa un mètode analític simplificat ("FAST") per a l'estimació de la vulnerabilitat a gran escala d'edificis porticats de formigó armat amb envans de fàbrica. Posteriorment, el mètode ha estat testejat mitjançant l'adopció de l'escenari de dany real corresponent al terratrèmol de Lorca de 2011 com a patró de comparació. FAST és un procediment espectral que permet predir el nivell de dany no estructural mitjà esperat per a cada classe d'edifici (definit pel seu nombre de plantes, any de construcció, densitat d'envans en planta i localització geogràfica), considerant un determinat nivell de demanda. El mètode té en compte la irregularitat de la distribució de envans al llarg de les diferents plantes del edifici. Es a dir, es pot tenir en compte que, freqüentment, hi ha una menor quantitat de d'envans a la planta baixa. FAST es fonamenta en: (i) la definició de corbes de capacitat aproximades que tenen en compte no sols la estructura del edifici sinó també els envans i assumint que l'estructura de HA s'ha projectat segons la norma sísmica corresponent en cada cas; (ii) l'assumpció de deformades "apriorístiques" coherents amb cada grau de dany (suposant que aquest es dona sempre a la planta baixa) que han estat estimades a través de correlacions experimentals i numèriques. Es proposen dues versions de FAST: una "simplificada" per a l'avaluació d'edificis amb envans uniformement repartits per totes les plantes, i una altra "generalitzada", que és capaç de tenir en compte qualsevol situació intermèdia entre el prototip uniformement paredat i el de planta baixa diàfana. A més, es proposen certes extensions al mètode. Per tal de validar FAST, es tria l'escenari de dany real corresponent al terratrèmol de Lorca (2011) com a patró de comparació, malgrat la seva impulsivitat i directivitat. Per definir els paràmetres de entrada corresponents al cas d'estudi, cal recopilar prèviament la informació concernent al senyal sísmica, l'escenari de dany i les característiques del parc construït. Per tant, es porta a terme una revisió exhaustiva de les normes sísmiques històriques a Espanya i una anàlisi crítica de la norma sísmica espanyola actual (NCSE-02) comparant-la amb altres normes actuals de referència, com l'Eurocodi 8, fonamentat en el concepte d'acompliment. També es fa èmfasi a les provisions que no garanteixen el disseny per capacitat i que, per tant, poden provocar mecanismes de col·lapse fràgils o afavorir la interacció de la estructura amb els envans. A més, es discuteix sobre la restricció del coeficient de ductilitat de les estructures de bigues planes ja que es una qüestió que no aborden la majoria de les normes. Els resultats obtinguts mitjançant l'anàlisi de casos d'estudi mostren que aquesta restricció resulta obsoleta a les normes actuals. Finalment, FAST s'aplica al cas del terratrèmol de Lorca, obtenint prediccions de dany mitjà per a diferents combinacions del paràmetres de entrada. Els resultats mostren una coincidència acceptable entre la predicció i els danys reals. FAST confirma que la causa principal de la pràctica absència de col·lapses (davant un terratrèmol amb PGA triple que la típica de projecte) cal buscar-la en la contribució estructural dels envans., Gómez Martínez, F. (2015). FAST simplified vulnerability approach for seismic assessment of infilled RC MRF buildings and its application to the 2011 Lorca (Spain) earthquake [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. doi:10.4995/Thesis/10251/54780., TESIS

The Emilia 2012 sequence featured seven events of moment magnitude (M) >5, five of which occurred between May 20 and May 29, 2012. These earthquakes were structurally damaging over a wide area. The damage included partial or total collapse of industrial precast reinforced-concrete structures, historical masonry, and mainly nonstructural damage to reinforced-concrete buildings; see Section 8 (Data and sharing resources) for damage report repository. These structural typologies are, in principle, sensitive to different ground-motion intensity measures. For example, loss of support requires significant displacement demand at relatively long periods, while infilling damage is due to the ground-motion amplitude at higher frequencies, and masonry structures are comparatively more sensitive to the cyclic content of ground shaking. Moreover, because events were concentrated in time and space, it can be argued that the cumulative effects of the sequence contributed to the damage. As the current seismic code [C.S.LL.PP. 2008] uses a seismic hazard map [Stucchi et al. 2011] to determine the seismic actions for structural design, when a strong earthquake occurs, probabilistic estimates are understandably questioned for their consistency with respect to the observed ground motion. While it is easy to show that in terms of frequency of exceedance of intensity measures, the hazard can hardly be validated via the records of a single earthquake [e.g., Iervolino 2012], on the other hand, it can certainly be verified whether the observations are compatible or atypical with respect to what is predicted by the tools used in best-practice hazard studies. These issues mostly motivated the preliminary analysis briefly presented in this report; i.e., to investigate the engineering seismic demand (peak and cyclic) and to compare this with the prediction models. Both elastic and inelastic demands were considered. Indeed, the inelastic demands are more important from the structural engineering point of view. […]

T he bilinear approximation of force - deformation capacity curves is investigated for structural systems with non - neg ative - stiffness. This piecewise linear approximation process factually links capacity and demand; it lies at the core of the nonlinear static assessment pr o- cedure s, and it has become part of seismic guidelines and codes, such as ASCE - 41 and Eur o- code 8. D es pite codification, the various fitting rules , used to derive the bilinear representation , can pr o duce highly heterogeneous results for the same capacity curve. This is especially valid for highly - curved backbones resulting from structural models with accur ate representation of the initial, uncracked , stiffness or buildings characterized by a global co l- lapse mechanism that lead s to a gradual plasticization of the elements. The error introduced by the bilinearization of the force - deformation relationship is q ua n- tified by studying it at the single - degree - of - freedom (SDOF) level, away from any inte r ference from multi - degree - of - freedom (MDOF) effects, thus avoiding the issue related to MDOF - SDOF approximation. Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA) is employed to e nable a direct comparison of the actual backbones versus their bilinear approximations in terms of the spe c- tral acceleration capacity for a continuum of limit - states, allow ing a direct compar i son of the results in terms of seismic perfo r mance. Code - based p rocedures are found to be less than ideal wherever there are significant stiffness changes, while in general remaining relatively conservative. The practical fitting rules determined allow, instead, a near - optimal fit regardless of the details of the c a pac ity curve shape .