Search

Background Diphtheria is uncommon in the World Health Organization (WHO) European Region. Nevertheless, sporadic cases, sometimes fatal, continue to be reported. Aim To report on diphtheria cases and coverage with first and third doses of diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis vaccines (DTP1 and DTP3, respectively) for 2010–19 in the Region with a focus on 2019. Methods Data on diphtheria cases were obtained from WHO/United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) Joint Reporting Forms submitted annually by the Region’s Member States. WHO/UNICEF Estimates of National Immunization Coverage for DTP1 and DTP3 were summarised for 2010–19. For 2019, we analysed data on age, and vaccination status and present data by country on DTP1 and DTP3 coverage and the percentage of districts with ≥ 90% and Results For 2010–19, 451 diphtheria cases were reported in the Region. DTP1 and DTP3 coverage was 92–96% and 95–97%, respectively. For 2019, 52 cases were reported by 11 of 48 countries that submitted reports (including zero reporting). Thirty-nine countries submitted data on percentage of their districts with ≥ 90% and Conclusion Long-standing high DTP3 coverage at Regional level probably explains the relatively few diphtheria cases reported in the Region. Suboptimal surveillance systems and inadequate laboratory diagnostic capacity may also be contributing factors. Still, the observed cases are of concern. Attaining high DTP3 coverage in all districts and implementing recommended booster doses are necessary to control diphtheria and prevent outbreaks.

Vaccines prevent 4–5 million deaths every year, but inequities in vaccine coverage persist among key disadvantaged subpopulations. Under-immunized subpopulations (e.g., migrants, slum residents) may be consistently missed with conventional methods for estimating immunization coverage and assessing vaccination barriers. Adaptive sampling, such as respondent-driven sampling, may offer useful strategies for identifying and collecting data from these subpopulations that are often “hidden” or hard-to-reach. However, use of these adaptive sampling approaches in the field of global immunization has not been systematically documented. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Embase databases to identify eligible studies published through November 2020 that used an adaptive sampling method to collect immunization-related data. From the eligible studies, we extracted relevant data on their objectives, setting and target population, and sampling methods. We categorized sampling methods and assessed their frequencies. Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria out of the 3069 articles screened for eligibility. Peer-driven sampling was the most frequently used adaptive sampling method (57%), followed by geospatial sampling (30%), venue-based sampling (17%), ethnographic mapping (9%), and compact segment sampling (9%). Sixty-one percent of studies were conducted in upper-middle-income or high-income countries. Data on immunization uptake were collected in 65% of studies, and data on knowledge and attitudes about immunizations were collected in 57% of studies. We found limited use of adaptive sampling methods in measuring immunization coverage and understanding determinants of vaccination uptake. The current under-utilization of adaptive sampling approaches leaves much room for improvement in how immunization programs calibrate their strategies to reach “hidden” subpopulations.

Background Globally, suboptimal vaccine coverage is a public health concern. According to Uganda’s 2016 Demographic and Health Survey, only 49% of 12- to 23-month-old children received all recommended vaccinations by 12 months of age. Innovative ways are needed to increase coverage, reduce dropout, and increase awareness among caregivers to bring children for timely vaccination. Objective This study evaluates a personalized, automated caregiver mobile phone–delivered text message reminder intervention to reduce the proportion of children who start but do not complete the vaccination series for children aged 12 months and younger in select health facilities in Arua district. Methods A two-arm, multicenter, parallel group randomized controlled trial was conducted in four health facilities providing vaccination services in and around the town of Arua. Caregivers of children between 6 weeks and 6 months of age at the time of their first dose of pentavalent vaccine (Penta1; containing diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B, and Haemophilus influenzae type b antigens) were recruited and interviewed. All participants received the standard of care, defined as the health worker providing child vaccination home-based records to caregivers as available and providing verbal instruction of when to return for the next visit. At the end of each day, caregivers and their children were randomized by computer either to receive or not receive personalized, automated text message reminders for their subsequent vaccination visits according to the national schedule. Text message reminders for Penta2 were sent 2 days before, on the day of, and 2 days after the scheduled vaccination visit. Reminders for Penta3 and the measles-containing vaccine were sent on the scheduled day of vaccination and 5 and 7 days after the scheduled day. Study personnel conducted postintervention follow-up interviews with participants at the health facilities during the children’s measles-containing vaccine visit. In addition, focus group discussions were conducted to assess caregiver acceptability of the intervention, economic data were collected to evaluate the incremental costs and cost-effectiveness of the intervention, and health facility record review forms were completed to capture service delivery process indicators. Results Of the 3485 screened participants, 1961 were enrolled from a sample size of 1962. Enrollment concluded in August 2016. Follow-up interviews of study participants, including data extraction from the children’s vaccination cards, data extraction from the health facility immunization registers, completion of the health facility record review forms, and focus group discussions were completed by December 2017. The results are expected to be released in 2021. Conclusions Prompting health-seeking behavior with reminders has been shown to improve health intervention uptake. Mobile phone ownership continues to grow in Uganda, so their use in vaccination interventions such as this study is logical and should be evaluated with scientifically rigorous study designs. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04177485; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04177485 International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) DERR1-10.2196/17262

BACKGROUND Globally, suboptimal vaccine coverage is a public health concern. According to Uganda’s 2016 Demographic and Health Survey, only 49% of 12- to 23-month-old children received all recommended vaccinations by 12 months of age. Innovative ways are needed to increase coverage, reduce dropout, and increase awareness among caregivers to bring children for timely vaccination. OBJECTIVE This study evaluates a personalized, automated caregiver mobile phone–delivered text message reminder intervention to reduce the proportion of children who start but do not complete the vaccination series for children aged 12 months and younger in select health facilities in Arua district. METHODS A two-arm, multicenter, parallel group randomized controlled trial was conducted in four health facilities providing vaccination services in and around the town of Arua. Caregivers of children between 6 weeks and 6 months of age at the time of their first dose of pentavalent vaccine (Penta1; containing diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B, and Haemophilus influenzae type b antigens) were recruited and interviewed. All participants received the standard of care, defined as the health worker providing child vaccination home-based records to caregivers as available and providing verbal instruction of when to return for the next visit. At the end of each day, caregivers and their children were randomized by computer either to receive or not receive personalized, automated text message reminders for their subsequent vaccination visits according to the national schedule. Text message reminders for Penta2 were sent 2 days before, on the day of, and 2 days after the scheduled vaccination visit. Reminders for Penta3 and the measles-containing vaccine were sent on the scheduled day of vaccination and 5 and 7 days after the scheduled day. Study personnel conducted postintervention follow-up interviews with participants at the health facilities during the children’s measles-containing vaccine visit. In addition, focus group discussions were conducted to assess caregiver acceptability of the intervention, economic data were collected to evaluate the incremental costs and cost-effectiveness of the intervention, and health facility record review forms were completed to capture service delivery process indicators. RESULTS Of the 3485 screened participants, 1961 were enrolled from a sample size of 1962. Enrollment concluded in August 2016. Follow-up interviews of study participants, including data extraction from the children’s vaccination cards, data extraction from the health facility immunization registers, completion of the health facility record review forms, and focus group discussions were completed by December 2017. The results are expected to be released in 2021. CONCLUSIONS Prompting health-seeking behavior with reminders has been shown to improve health intervention uptake. Mobile phone ownership continues to grow in Uganda, so their use in vaccination interventions such as this study is logical and should be evaluated with scientifically rigorous study designs. CLINICALTRIAL ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04177485; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04177485 INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT DERR1-10.2196/17262

Introduction Immunization programs in developing countries increasingly face challenges to ensure equitable delivery of services within cities where rapid urban growth can result in informal settlements, poor living conditions, and heterogeneous populations. A number of strategies have been utilized in developing countries to ensure high community demand and equitable availability of urban immunization services; however, a synthesis of the literature on these strategies has not previously been undertaken. Methods We reviewed articles published in English in peer-reviewed journals between 1990 and 2013 that assessed interventions for improving routine immunization coverage in urban areas in low- and middle-income countries. We categorized the intervention in each study into one of three groups: (1) interventions aiming to increase utilization of immunization services; (2) interventions aiming to improve availability of immunization services by healthcare providers, or (3) combined availability and utilization interventions. We summarized the main quantitative outcomes from each study and effective practices from each intervention category. Results Fifteen studies were identified; 87% from the African, Eastern Mediterranean and Southeast Asian regions of the World Health Organization (WHO). Six studies were randomized controlled trials, eight were pre- and post-intervention evaluations, and one was a cross-sectional study. Four described interventions designed to improve availability of routine immunization services, six studies described interventions that aimed to increase utilization, and five studies aiming to improve both availability and utilization of services. All studies reported positive change in their primary outcome indicator, although seven different primary outcomes indicators were used across studies. Studies varied considerably with respect to the type of intervention assessed, study design, and length of intervention assessment. Conclusion Few studies have assessed interventions designed explicitly for the unique challenges facing immunization programs in urban areas. Further research on sustainability, scalability, and cost-effectiveness of interventions is needed to fill this gap.

INTRODUCTION: Limited evidence is available about the effectiveness of strategies to remind caregivers when to bring children back for future vaccinations in low- and middle-income country settings. We evaluated the effectiveness of two reminder strategies based on home-based vaccination records (HBR) in Indonesia. METHODS: In this cluster-randomized controlled trial involving 3616 children

Introduction Missed opportunities for vaccination (MOV) can result in inadequate protection against disease. Although healthcare provider reluctance to open multi-dose, lyophilized vaccine vials (particularly the measles-containing vaccine [MCV]) for every eligible child due to concerns about wasting vaccine is a known reason for MOV, little is known about providers’ related attitudes and practices. Methods In 100 randomly selected health facilities and 24 districts of Cambodia, we surveyed healthcare providers and their district supervisors regarding routine vaccine administration and wastage knowledge and practices, and child caregivers (five per facility) regarding MOV. Vaccine stock management data covering six months were reviewed to calculate facility and district level wastage rates and vaccine usage patterns for six vaccines, including a recently introduced second dose of MCV (MCV2). Results Response rates were 100/100 (100%) among facility staff, 48/48 (100%) among district staff, and 436/500 (87%) among caregivers. Mean facility-level wastage rates varied from 4% for single-dose diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-hepatitis B-Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine to 60% for 10-dose MCV; district-level wastage rates for all vaccines were 0%. Some vaccines had lower wastage rates in large facilities compared to small facilities. The mean MCV wastage rate was the same before and immediately after MCV2 introduction. Providers reported waiting for a mean of two children prior to opening an MCV vial, and 71% of providers reported offering MCV vaccination less frequently during scheduled vaccination sessions than other vaccines. Less than 5% of caregivers reported that their child had been turned away for vaccination, most frequently (65%) for MCV. Discussion Although the MCV wastage rate in our study was in line with national targets, providers reported waiting for more than one child before opening an MCV vial, contrary to vaccine management guidelines. Future research should explore the causal links between provider practices related to vaccine wastage and their impact on vaccination coverage.

Pneumonia and diarrhea are the leading causes of child morbidity and mortality globally and are vaccine preventable. The WHO-coordinated Global Rotavirus and Invasive Bacterial Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance Networks support surveillance systems across WHO regions to provide burden of disease data for countries to make evidence-based decisions about introducing vaccines and to demonstrate the impact of vaccines on disease burden. These surveillance networks help fill the gaps in data in low and middle-income countries where disease burden and risk are high but support to sustain surveillance activities and generate data is low. Through a series of country case studies, this paper reviews the successful use of surveillance data for disease caused by pneumococcus and rotavirus in informing national vaccine policy in Bangladesh, Armenia and The Gambia. The case studies delve into ways in which countries are leveraging and building capacity in existing surveillance infrastructure to monitor other diseases of concern in the country. Local institutions have been identified to play a critical role in making surveillance data available to policymakers. We recommend that countries review local or regional surveillance data in making vaccine policy decisions. Documenting use of surveillance activities can be used as advocacy tools to convince governments and external funders to invest in surveillance and make it a priority immunization activity.

Introduction The introduction of new vaccines highlights concerns about high vaccine wastage, knowledge of wastage policies and quality of stock management. However, an emphasis on minimizing wastage rates may cause confusion when recommendations are also being made to reduce missed opportunities to routinely vaccinate children. This concern is most relevant for lyophilized vaccines without preservatives [e.g. measles-containing vaccine (MCV)], which can be used for a limited time once reconstituted. Methods We sampled 54 health facilities within 11 local government areas (LGAs) in Nigeria and surveyed health sector personnel regarding routine vaccine usage and wastage-related knowledge and practices, conducted facility exit interviews with caregivers of children about missed opportunities for routine vaccination, and abstracted vaccine stock records and vaccination session data over a 6-month period to calculate wastage rates and vaccine vial usage patterns. Results Nearly half of facilities had incomplete vaccine stock data for calculating wastage rates. Among facilities with sufficient data, mean monthly facility-level wastage rates were between 18 and 35% across all reviewed vaccines, with little difference between lyophilized and liquid vaccines. Most (98%) vaccinators believed high wastage led to recent vaccine stockouts, yet only 55% were familiar with the multi-dose vial policy for minimizing wastage. On average, vaccinators reported that a minimum of six children must be present prior to opening a 10-dose MCV vial. Third dose of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine (DTP3) was administered in 84% of sessions and MCV in 63%; however, the number of MCV and DTP3 doses administered were similar indicating the number of children vaccinated with DTP3 and MCV were similar despite less frequent MCV vaccination opportunities. Among caregivers, 30% reported being turned away for vaccination at least once; 53% of these children had not yet received the missed dose. Discussion Our findings show inadequate implementation of vaccine management guidelines, missed opportunities to vaccinate, and lyophilized vaccine wastage rates below expected rates. Missed opportunities for vaccination may occur due to how the health system’s contradicting policies may force health workers to prioritize reduced wastage rates over vaccine administration, particularly for multi-dose vials.

The Global Polio Eradication Initiative began in 1988 with the goal of interrupting all wild poliovirus (WPV) transmission. Progress continues, but poliomyelitis remains endemic in Nigeria, Afghanistan, and Pakistan [1]. In addition, outbreaks due to importations have occurred in countries where indigenous WPV transmission had been interrupted, such as in Tajikistan, Ivory Coast, and China in 2010–2011 [2–4]. In some countries that had achieved the goal of interrupting WPV transmission, such as Angola, Chad, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), importations have resulted in ongoing, reestablished transmission, creating the threat of WPV spread to other polio-free countries. The Expanded Programme on Immunization began in the Republic of Congo (ROC) in 1981. However, civil unrest during 1993–2003, including a civil war in 1997–1999, disrupted routine immunization services for multiple birth cohorts. The recommended routine schedule includes 4 doses of trivalent oral polio vaccine (tOPV) administered at birth and at 6, 10, and 14 weeks of age. National reported routine immunization coverage for ≥3 doses of tOPV3 rose from 42% in 1980 to 90% in 2010; however, tOPV3 coverage dropped to 20% during the civil unrest in 1993–2003 (Figure 1) [5]. In 2010, administrative tOPV3 coverage of 90% was reported among 1-year-olds; however, a survey found tOPV3 coverage to be 68% [6]. Supplementary immunization activities (SIAs) targeting children aged

SummaryMany health surveys conduct an initial household interview to obtain demographic information and then request permission to obtain detailed information on health outcomes from the respondent's health care providers. A ‘complete response’ results when both the demographic information and the detailed health outcome data are obtained. A ‘partial response’ results when the initial interview is complete but, for one reason or another, the detailed health outcome information is not obtained. If ‘complete responders’ differ from ‘partial responders’ and the proportion of partial responders in the sample is at least moderately large, statistics that use only data from complete responders may be severely biased. We refer to bias that is attributable to these differences as ‘partial non-response’ bias. In health surveys it is customary to adjust survey estimates to account for potential differences by employing adjustment cells and weighting to reduce bias from partial response. Before making these adjustments, it is important to ask whether an adjustment is expected to increase or decrease bias from partial non-response. After making these adjustments, an equally important question is ‘How well does the method of adjustment work to reduce partial non-response bias?’. The paper describes methods for answering these questions. Data from the US National Immunization Survey are used to illustrate the methods.

Objective: To identify factors associated with undervaccination of African-American preschoolers, to describe the number of vaccination visits made by undervaccinated children and the number of visits needed to be series complete, and to describe the children who did not receive the single dose of measles-containing vaccine recommended for preschoolers. Methods: We used the 1999 National Immunization Survey (NIS) to describe vaccination coverage for the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series (four doses of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis vaccine, three doses of poliovirus vaccine, one dose of any measles-containing vaccine, and three doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine) among non-Hispanic, African-American preschoolers due to concerns that they may be at risk of undervaccination. Children who did not complete this basic vaccine series were classified for further analysis according to the number of doses they lacked (i.e., one dose missed, two or three doses missed, or four or more doses missed). Significant associations between demographic characteristics and vaccination status or degree of undervaccination were determined. Results: Of the 26.2% of African-American preschoolers who did not complete the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series, 40.3% lacked one, 35.3% lacked two or three, and 25.0% lacked four or more doses of vaccine. Children who did not complete the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series were less likely to have married mothers, were less likely to have mothers aged ≥35 years, or were less likely to be up to date at age 3 months than the children who completed the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series. Among the undervaccinated, 63.7% had a sufficient number of vaccination visits to have completed the basic series. However, most (78.7%) of the severely undervaccinated (children who lacked more than three doses of vaccine) had three or fewer vaccination visits. For 72.6% of the undervaccinated preschoolers, only one additional vaccination visit was needed to complete the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series; among these, 78.3% had an adequate number of vaccination visits to have completed the series. Overall, 9.9% of the African-American children aged 19 to 35 months (i.e., approximately 85,000 African-American children aged 19 to 35 months) were at risk for measles. Among the children who lacked more than three doses of vaccine, 68.1% were at risk. Conclusions: Our study suggests that the estimated coverage of 73.8% for the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series among African-American children aged 19 to 35 months was not a result of limited access to care. On the contrary, 90.5% of African-American children had enough vaccination visits to complete the series. To raise coverage and prevent potential outbreaks, providers should assess each child's vaccination status at every visit, and administer all needed vaccinations at that time. For the most severely undervaccinated children, this strategy may not be adequate, because they did not have the minimum number of vaccination visits required for series completion. For these children, other strategies are needed for increasing vaccination coverage.

Background: An estimated 1 million to 1.25 million people in the United States are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and are at substantially increased risk of developing chronic liver disease, including cirrhosis and primary hepatocellular carcinoma. Immunization with hepatitis B vaccine (HepB) is the most effective means of preventing HBV infection and its consequences. Methods: To identify and describe children who had not completed the three-dose HepB series, we analyzed data from the 1999 National Immunization Survey (NIS). Among the 2648 children aged 19 to 35 months who did not complete the HepB series, we examined the relationship between the number of doses of HepB received and the number of vaccination visits made, receipt of the birth dose of HepB, age at the time of first vaccination visit (excluding that for the birth dose of HepB), and completion of the 4:3:1:3 series (four doses of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis vaccine, three doses of poliovirus vaccine, one dose of measles-containing vaccine, and three doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine [Hib]). Results: Overall, 11.8% of the children who were included in the 1999 NIS did not complete the HepB series. Among these series-incomplete children, most (79.8%; 95% CI, 77.4%–82.2%) did not receive the birth dose of HepB, and most (80.2%; 95% CI, 77.6%–82.8%) had three or more vaccination visits. Most of the series-incomplete children (87.3%; 95% CI, 85.1%–89.5%) who had three or more vaccination visits received one or two doses of HepB. Among series-incomplete children with at least three vaccination visits, those who did not receive any HepB were more likely to have completed the 4:3:1:3 series (67.1%; 95% CI, 58.8%–75.4%) than those who received at least one dose of HepB (52.7%; 95% CI, 49.0%–56.4%). Conclusions: Children who did not complete the HepB series fell into three distinct groups: children who made at least three vaccination visits but did not begin the HepB series ( n =326); children who made three or more vaccination visits and received one or two doses of HepB ( n =1835); and children who made fewer than three vaccination visits ( n =487). Different intervention strategies are needed to have an impact on each of these groups, including understanding why parents and providers may not be receptive to HepB, decreasing missed opportunities to administer HepB, and implementing tracking systems such as registries to identify and contact children who are due or overdue for vaccinations.

Background: This study characterizes the healthcare visits at which children receive vaccinations, including the number of these visits and the number of vaccinations that are administered. Methods: The 1999 National Immunization Survey (NIS) is a nationally representative sample of children aged 19 to 35 months, verified by provider records, that is conducted to obtain estimates of vaccination coverage rates. We describe the number of healthcare visits in which one or more vaccinations were given, the number of vaccinations given at these visits, and the number of visits and vaccinations needed for an underimmunized child to complete the recommended vaccination series. Results: Of the children who did not receive all doses of the recommended vaccinations (4:3:1:3:3 vaccination series), three fourths had four or more immunization visits. Vaccination coverage increased as the number of visits increased, and children who had completed the series were more likely to receive multiple vaccinations than those who had not. Most children (70.7%) received a maximum of four vaccinations in any immunization visit. The majority of children (73.5%) who had not completed the 4:3:1:3:3 vaccination series needed only a single visit to complete the series. The majority (61.7%) of children who needed only one visit also needed only one additional vaccination. Conclusions: While estimated national coverage for all recommended vaccinations is considerably below the Healthy People 2000 and Healthy People 2010 goal of 90%, achieving this goal is in essence just one visit away. If all children who needed one more visit were to receive that final visit, the national coverage among children 19 to 35 months for all recommended vaccinations would be 93%.

Herbicides, chlorophenols, and other occupational exposures are suspected risk factors for soft-tissue sarcoma, but the epidemiologic evidence is inconsistent. Given that soft-tissue sarcomas represent a heterogeneous mix of cancer subtypes and that these subtypes have different disease patterns by race, sex, and age at diagnosis, studying all soft-tissue sarcomas combined may mask subtype-specific associations. Using the Selected Cancers Study, a large population-based case-control study of sarcoma conducted among U.S. men aged 30 to 60 in 1984 to 1988, we explored the occupational risk factors for soft-tissue sarcoma subtypes and skeletal sarcoma. The analysis included 251 living sarcoma cases (48 dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, 32 malignant fibrohistiocytic sarcoma, 67 leiomyosarcoma, 53 liposarcoma, and 51 skeletal sarcoma) and 1908 living controls. Exact conditional logistic regression models suggested patterns of subtype specificity for occupational exposures. Self-reported herbicide use was associated with malignant fibrohistiocytic sarcoma (OR = 2.9, 95% CI = 1.1-7.3). We found elevated risks for chlorophenol exposure and cutting oil exposure and malignant fibrohistiocytic sarcoma and leiomyosarcoma. We found no occupational risk factor for liposarcoma. Polytomous regression models identified different odds ratios across subtypes for plywood exposure and exposure to wood and saw dust. Although exploratory, this analysis suggests that occupational risk factors for sarcoma are not uniform across subtypes.

Background Hepatitis B vaccination is recommended for patients on hemodialysis, however, seroprotection after a primary vaccine series is suboptimum. Limited data are available on the effect of revaccination of non-responders and on persistence of immunity in this population. Methods Hepatitis B vaccine (40 μg/dose) was given to 77 susceptible patients on hemodialysis (0, 1, and 6 month schedule). Levels of hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) were tested ≥28 days after the third dose was administered, and non-responders revaccinated with an additional 3-dose series. Vaccine responders (anti-HBs ≥10 mIU/mL) were re-tested every 6 months and booster doses given as needed. Kaplan–Meier survival curve was used to estimate the probability of maintaining protective antibody level. Cox-proportional hazards models were used to assess the association between time to loss of protective antibody levels and certain explanatory variables. Results Overall primary vaccine-induced response was 79.2% (95% CI 68.2%, 87.3%), including 49/77 (63.6%; 95% CI 51.8%, 74.7%) patients who received the initial primary hepatitis B vaccine series and 12/21 (57.1%; 95% CI 34.4%, 77.4%) non-responders who were revaccinated with an additional series. Among weak responders (anti-HBs level 10.0–99.9 mIU/mL), protective antibody levels persisted in 44% for 12 months post-vaccination; whereas among strong responders (anti-HBs level ≥100 mIU/mL), protective antibody levels persisted in 92% for 12 months, and 68% for 24 months post-vaccination. A weak post-vaccination response increased the risk of losing protective antibody levels (adjusted hazard ratio, 9.7; 95% confidence interval, 3.5–28.5; p Conclusion Revaccinating patients undergoing hemodialysis who do not respond to a primary vaccine series substantially increases the pool of protected patients. The threshold for defining hepatitis B vaccine-induced immunity should be revisited in this patient population to maximize the duration of protection.

In the United States, acute viral hepatitis most frequently is caused by infection with any of three distinct viruses: hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), or hepatitis C virus (HCV). These unrelated viruses are transmitted through different routes and have different epidemiologic profiles. Safe and effective vaccines have been available for hepatitis B since 1981 and for hepatitis A since 1995. No vaccine exists against hepatitis C. HBV and HCV can persist as chronic infections and represent a leading cause of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States.Cases in 2007, the most recent year for which data are available, are compared with those from previous years.Cases of acute viral hepatitis are reported voluntarily to CDC by state and territorial health departments via CDC's National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System (NNDSS). Reports are received electronically via CDC's National Electronic Telecommunications System for Surveillance (NETSS).Acute hepatitis A incidence has declined 92%, from 12.0 cases per 100,000 population in 1995 to 1.0 case per 100,000 population in 2007, the lowest rate ever recorded. Declines were greatest among children and in those states where routine vaccination of children was recommended beginning in 1999. Acute hepatitis B incidence has declined 82%, from 8.5 cases per 100,000 population in 1990 to 1.5 cases per 100,000 population in 2007, the lowest rate ever recorded. Declines occurred among all age groups but were greatest among children aged15 years. Following a peak in 1992, incidence of acute hepatitis C declined; however, since 2003, rates have plateaued. In 2007, as in previous years, the majority of these cases occurred among adults, and injection-drug use was the most common risk factor.The results documented in this report suggest that implementation of the 1999 recommendations for routine childhood hepatitis A vaccination in areas of the United States with consistently elevated hepatitis A rates has reduced rates of infection. In addition, universal vaccination of children against hepatitis B beginning in 1991 has reduced disease incidence substantially among younger age groups. Higher rates of hepatitis B continue among adults, particularly among males aged 30-44 years, reflecting the need to vaccinate adults at risk for HBV infection. The decline in hepatitis C incidence after 1992 was attributable primarily to a decrease in incidence among injection-drug users. The reasons for this decrease were unknown but probably reflected changes in behavior and practices among injection-drug users.The expansion in 2006 of recommendations for routine hepatitis A vaccination to include all children in the United States aged 12-23 months is expected to reduce hepatitis A rates further. Ongoing hepatitis B vaccination programs ultimately will eliminate domestic HBV transmission, and increased vaccination of adults with risk factors will accelerate progress toward elimination. Further prevention of hepatitis B and hepatitis C relies on identifying and preventing transmission of HBV or HCV in hospital and nonhospital health-care associated settings. In addition, prevention of hepatitis C relies on identifying and counseling uninfected persons at risk for hepatitis C (e.g., injection-drug users) regarding ways they can protect themselves from infection. Public health management of persons with chronic HBV or HCV infection will help to interrupt the transmission to susceptible persons, and their medical management will help to reduce the development of the sequelae from chronic liver disease.

Background. In 1991 the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended vaccination of all infants with three doses of hepatitis B virus vaccine (HepB) by 18 months of age as a key component of a comprehensive strategy to eliminate hepatitis B virus transmission in the United States. The American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Academy of Family Physicians published similar recommendations soon afterward. Methods. Data were obtained from the National Immunization Survey, a survey that began in 1994 and is conducted quarterly by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to estimate vaccination coverage among noninstitutionalized US children 19 to 35 months of age. Results. The 1999 National Immunization Survey data indicate that 88.1% (95% confidence interval, 87.4, 88.8) of children 19 to 35 months of age had received at least three doses of HepB (HepB3). There has been a consistent increase in HepB3 coverage since 1994. However, the rate of increase has slowed in recent years and HepB3 coverage remains lower than coverage attained with three doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis and Haemophilus influenzae vaccines. HepB3 coverage varied slightly by racelethnicity and was highest among white and Asian children (89%). Coverage also varied by state; 26 states had levels of at least 90%. Conclusions. Since the 1991 recommendations for universal hepatitis B vaccination, there has been a dramatic increase in coverage levels among children 19 to 35 months of age. However, the Childhood Immunization Initiative goal of 90% coverage has not been reached. Therefore continued efforts are needed to protect US children against this serious but preventable infection.

ContextThe association between infant age at initiation of hepatitis B vaccination and completion of the 3-dose hepatitis B vaccination series is unclear.ObjectiveTo assess the association between administration of the first dose of hepatitis B vaccine within 7 days of birth and completion of the hepatitis B vaccine series and the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series (4 doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine, 3 doses of polio vaccine, 1 dose of measles-containing vaccine, and 3 doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine).Design, Setting, and ParticipantsAnalysis of data from the 1998 National Immunization Survey, a random-digit-dialing telephone survey (n = 34,480 completed interviews) of parents of children aged 19 to 35 months from 50 states and 28 selected urban areas in the United States that included a provider record check mail survey.Main Outcome MeasuresPercentage of infants who received at least 3 doses of hepatitis B vaccine and percentage who received the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series, by age at receipt of the first dose of hepatitis B vaccine.ResultsOverall, 86.9% of children 19 to 35 months of age in 1998 received 3 or more doses of hepatitis B vaccine, and 79.9% completed the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series. Multivariate analysis indicated that, compared with children who received the first hepatitis B vaccine dose within 7 days of birth, odds ratios (ORs) for not completing the 3-dose hepatitis B vaccine series among children who received the first dose at 8 to 41 days, 42 to 91 days, 92 to 182 days, 183 to 273 days, and 274 or more days of age were 2.4 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.0-3.0), 7.8 (95% CI, 6.5-9.3), 9.6 (95% CI, 7.0-13.3), 18.3 (95% CI, 12.0-28.0), and 46.6 (95% CI, 33.7-64.5), respectively; ORs for not completing the 4:3:1:3 vaccine series among these same groups were 1.0 (95% CI, 0.8-1.1), 1.0 (95% CI, 0.8-1.1), 1.7 (95% CI, 1.3-2.3), 3.8 (95% CI, 2.6-5.6), and 4.0 (95% CI, 2.9-5.5), respectively.ConclusionAdministration of the first dose of hepatitis B vaccine at birth is associated with increased likelihood of completion of the hepatitis B vaccination series.