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Understanding the effects of global change and human activities on water supplies depends greatly on surface water dynamics. A comprehensive examination of the hydroclimatic variations at the transboundary level is essential for the development of any adaptation or mitigation plans to deal with the negative effects of climate change. This research paper examines the hydroclimatic factors that contribute to the desiccation of the Doosti Dam’s basin in the transboundary area using multisensor satellite data from the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. The Mann–Kendall and Sens slope estimator test was applied to the satellite datasets to analyse the spatial and temporal variation of the hydroclimate variables and their trend over the transboundary area for 18 years from 2004 to 2021 (as the dam began operating in 2005). Statistical analysis results showed decreasing trends in temperature and an increase in rainfall with respect to station-observed available data. Evapotranspiration and irrigated area development followed the increasing pattern and a slight decrease in snow cover. The results confirmed a large expansion of the irrigated area, especially during the winter growing season. The increase in irrigated cultivated areas during both winter and summer seasons is possibly the main reason for the diversion of water to meet the irrigation requirements of the developed agriculture areas. The approach followed in this study could be applied to any location around the globe to evaluate the hydrological conditions and spatiotemporal changes in response to climate change, trend analysis and human activities.

The accuracy of most SAR-based flood classification and segmentation derived from semi-automated algorithms is often limited due to complicated radar backscatter. However, deep learning techniques, now widely applied in image classifications, have demonstrated excellent potential for mapping complex scenes and improving flood mapping accuracy. Therefore, this study aims to compare the image classification accuracy of three convolutional neural network (CNN)-based encoder–decoders (i.e., U-Net, PSPNet and DeepLapV3) by leveraging the end-to-end ArcGIS Pro workflow. A specific objective of this method consists of labelling and training each CNN model separately on publicly available dual-polarised pre-flood data (i.e., Sentinel-1 and NovaSAR-1) based on the ResNet convolutional backbone via a transfer learning approach. The neural network results were evaluated using multiple model training trials, validation loss, training loss and confusion matrix from test datasets. During testing on the post-flood data, the results revealed that U-Net marginally outperformed the other models. In this study, the overall accuracy and F1-score reached 99% and 98% on the test data, respectively. Interestingly, the segmentation results showed less use of manual cleaning, thus encouraging the use of open-source image data for the rapid, accurate and continuous monitoring of floods using the CNN-based approach.

Surveyors of open cut mining operations employ multiple data acquisition techniques such as the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and GNSS positioning for creating 3D surface models. Surveyors, mine planners and geologists are increasingly combining point cloud datasets to achieve more detailed surface models for the use of material reconciliation and volume calculations. Terrestrial Laser Scanning and UAV photogrammetry have enabled large, accurate and time effective data collection and increased computing capacity enables geospatial professionals to create 3D virtual surfaces, through merging UAV point clouds and TLS data combing with GNSS positioning. This research paper investigates the effects of combining data sets for creating 3D surface models from independent spatial data collection methods such as UAV, TLS and GNSS and assess their accuracy for the purpose of volume calculations in mining operation. 3D surface models provide important information for mining operations, planning of resources, material volumes calculation and financial calculations. A case study of two rehabilitation mine sites in Northern Victoria, Australia was selected for this study. Field data were collected using Terrestrial Laser Scanner and UAV. After each dataset was processed and filtered, the data were merged to create surface models. The accuracy of the combined model was assessed comparing height (Z) values using a fishnet point grid of the surfaces. Volumes between surfaces were calculated, and a cost applied to the results based on the current bulk cubic meter (BCM) haulage rates. The outputs from this study will provide scientific contributions to civil and mining industries where the computation of stockpile values is required.

Informal settlements in urban areas are increasing rapidly throughout the world and regularisation of these settlements is being one of the challenging issues. Various study results have shown that conventional cadastral based information system approach and government managed institutional arrangements do not appropriately address land management issues of slum settlements. The aim of this study is to explore application of smartphone based Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) and open spatial tools for slum mapping in developing countries such as in Nepal. A case of Pokhara Metropolitan city has been considered to explore the potential of utilization of smartphone based VGI and open spatial tools for slum mapping. Attribute and spatial data were collected using Smartphones and community-driven approach. Spatial and attribute data collected from 229 respondents of household’s surveys are integrated, analysed and interpreted and presented in this paper. Open Street Map (OSM) platforms and QGIS open source software have been used for slum mapping. These maps could play an important role in providing spatial information to the local government and planning authority in Nepal. This research paper concludes that smartphone based VGI and open portals such OSM have great potential to contribute to develop slum database and in providing information to plan various strategies, which aims at understanding, regularisation and upgrading slums.

Spatial information plays a significant role in addressing many decision making process including the catchment decisions. Spatial data sharing is recognized as one of the important components in spatial data infrastructure design and development. This research develops spatial data sharing strategies for the implementation of improved spatial data sharing arrangements between catchment management authorities (CMAs) and state government organizations in Australia. A mixed method research approach was utilized to collect both quantitative and qualitative data from 56 CMAs and the embedded design framework was used for the synthesis and interpretation of the results. The national survey data and case study data were collected and analyzed sequentially using the mixed method design framework. Within, the case study, social network analysis was introduced for analyzing data sharing and provides a new perspective on assessing spatial data sharing relationship. The supplemental case study analysis embedded within a larger national survey provided a supportive role and enhanced the findings from the national survey. The key factors which influence spatial data sharing between state government organizations and CMAs were identified and classified into six major classes as governance, economic, policy, legal, cultural and technical. The nontechnical factors (governance, policy, economic, legal and cultural) were found to be more significant in comparison with the technical factor. Based on these findings, fourteen data sharing strategies were developed. The study suggests that the adoption and implementation of these strategies can assist in overcoming the spatial data sharing issues and hence will contribute to improved spatial data sharing arrangements between regional CMAs and state government organizations in Australia.

The participation and engagement of grass-root level community groups and citizens for natural resource management has a long history. With recent developments in ICT tools and spatial technology, these groups are seeking a new opportunity to manage natural resource data. There are lot of spatial information collected/generated by landcare groups, land holders and other community groups at the grass-root level through their volunteer initiatives. State government organisations are also interested in gaining access to this spatial data/information and engaging these groups to collect spatial information under their mapping programs. The aim of this paper is to explore the possible utilisation of volunteered geographic information (VGI) for catchment management activities. This research paper discusses the importance of spatial information and spatial data infrastructure (SDI) for catchment management and the emergence of VGI. A conceptual framework has been developed to illustrate how these emerging spatial information applications and various community volunteer activities can contribute to a more inclusive spatial data infrastructure (SDI) development at local level. A survey of 56 regional NRM bodies in Australia was utilised to explore the current community-driven volunteer initiatives for NRM activities and the potential of utilisation of VGI initiatives for NRM decision making process. This research paper concludes that VGI activities have great potential to contribute to SDI development at the community level to achieve better natural resource management (NRM) outcomes.

Spatial information plays an important role in many social, environmental and economic decisions and increasingly acknowledged as a national resource essential for wider societal and environmental benefits. Natural Resource Management is one area where spatial information can be used for improved planning and decision making processes. In Australia, state government organisations are the custodians of spatial information necessary for natural resource management and regional NRM bodies are responsible to regional delivery of NRM activities. The access and sharing of spatial information between government agencies and regional NRM bodies is therefore as an important issue for improving natural resource management outcomes. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the current status of spatial information access, sharing and use with varying statutory arrangements and its impacts on spatial data infrastructure (SDI) development in catchment management sector in Australia. Further, it critically examined whether any trends and significant variations exist due to different institutional arrangements (statutory versus non-statutory) or not. A survey method was used to collect primary data from 56 regional natural resource management (NRM) bodies responsible for catchment management in Australia. Descriptive statistics method was used to show the similarities and differences between statutory and non-statutory arrangements. The key factors which influence sharing and access to spatial information are also explored. The results show the current statutory and administrative arrangements and regional focus for natural resource management is reasonable from a spatial information management perspective and provides an opportunity for building SDI at the catchment scale. However, effective institutional arrangements should align catchment SDI development activities with sub-national and national SDI development activities to address catchment management issues. We found minor differences in spatial information access, use and sharing due to varying institutional environment (statutory versus non-statutory). The non-statutory group appears to be more flexible and selfsufficient whilst statutory regional NRM bodies may lack flexibility in their spatial information management practices. We found spatial information access, use and sharing has significant impacts on spatial data infrastructure development in catchment management sector in Australia.

The political objective of Nepal is poverty reduction and sustainable development. The sustainable land administration and management is a tool to achieve the political objectives. From an institutional perspective, land administration and management includes the formulation of land policy, the legal framework, resource management, land administration arrangements, and land information management. In Nepal, The draft of National Land Policy document has been formulated and it is under discussion at ministerial level. One of the recommendations on that National Land Policy document is the formulation of National Surveying and Mapping Policy. It is realized that the time has come to formulate the "National Surveying and Mapping Policy" based on the proposed National Land Policy document in keeping abreast of development and changes in the global technological environment. In this paper, an attempt has made to prepare National Surveying and Mapping Policy in Nepal. The main issues and challenges are also raised on this paper to formulate the National Surveying and Mapping Policy in Nepal. This paper starts with Background and describes the background for developing this policy document. It then describes about Survey Department activities. It then elaborates the policy on Surveying and Mapping in Nepal with policy on Geodetic Surveys and Space Science, Topographic Survey and Geographical Information Infrastructure, Cadastral Survey and Land Information, Research & Development, Resource, Administration. Finally, it concludes with some concluding remarks.

In Nepal, the value and price of land in urban areas is very high. Due to the scale constraint, the cadastral maps prepared by graphical cadastral surveying method does not satisfy the land owners as they are asking for the accuracy of centimeter of land in the front face of their land parcel. The land owners are also asking for the recording and documentation of 3D real estate objects. Considering these facts, Cadastral Survey Branch under Survey Department has initiated digital cadastre program focusing on the urban land areas. Last year, the piloting of this program has been successfully completed to prepare digital cadastral database in ward number six of Banepa Municipality, Nepal. After the success of digital cadastral mapping, the programme has been continued and some observations are made. Some lessons have been learned from this programme for the cadastral information system (CIS) development in Nepal. There are various ways to evaluate the cadastral projects. In this paper an attempt has been done to evaluate the digital cadastre programme from Cadastre 2014 perspectives.

The history of land recording system is very old in Nepal. Though, the administration of land was mentioned in ancient history, it became institutionalized since Lichhabi era. There was the provision of village panchali for the administration and management of land at village level. Many improvements like classification of lands, specification for land measurements, provision measurement units (as hale, pate, kute, kodale etc.), development of special profession for land survey and measurement (Dangol), land adjudication and boundary description of land etc. were made during Malla era. Later, the cadastral maps were also realized as an important component for land administration. The chain survey method was introduced to prepare cadastral maps. Systemic Cadastral Survey was started after the land reform programme in 2021 B.S. In the beginning, the cadastral survey was done in free sheet connecting with local points. 38 out of 75 districts were surveyed on local base point where as 37 districts were surveyed with the control points connected to the National geodetic network. The primary focus of cadastral surveying was fiscal purpose to generate revenue from land tax. Later, the legal cadastre system was developed as it provides more land tenure security to the land owners. Now the concept of multi-purpose cadastre is emerging. There are nine Survey Goswaras & a Survey office under Cadastral Survey Branch for cadastral surveying of different districts. Digital technology has been introduced for re-cadastral mapping from 2062 B.S. in Banepa Municipality.In this paper an attempt has made to review the cadastral system of Nepal from historical perspectives. This paper starts with introduction and describes about the historical context of land recording and cadastral surveying in Nepal. It then elaborates the institutions involved for the cadastral surveying in Nepal. The future vision of cadastral system is also described in this paper. Finally, it concludes with some concluding remarks.

The history of cadastre prevails that the records of land are kept in a text form as a basis to collect revenue and could be refer to one dimension cadastre. His Majesty's Government (HMG) of Nepal declared to launch Land Reform Program on 1964 AD. The main purpose of the program was to impose ceiling on land holding. For this purpose, it was necessary to determine the area of land hold by a land owner. In this way, the concept of two dimension cadastre was realized and the land registration was started with the help two dimension cadastral maps.As the population in urban area is ever growing and the land is fixed, the use of space under and above the surface seems to be one of the solutions to address the issue. So, there is a need of registration of vertical dimension of the legal status of real estate objects. The 3D information is becoming essential for land administration in Nepal. HMG of Nepal has adopted a policy to build apartments and joint residential building in urban area for optimal use of available space. Although, some juridical measures exist to address registration of vertical dimension of legal status of real estate objects in the available act, a lot of institutional and technical problems are facing for registration of apartment and room in a multi storey building in Nepal. Therefore, it is necessary to make a good institutional arrangement and develop a system to visualize 3D cadastre to link with cadastral maps and related land records.This paper first investigates the 3D cases practices in Nepal. There are more than eight such issues to be considered for the implementation of 3D cadastre. It then further elaborates about the three aspects; institutional, technical and legal to be considered for the 3D cadastre in Nepal. A low cost solution for the 3D mapping of the apartment or multistory building has investigated. The findings of this research will help the policy makers for the effective implementation of 3D cadastre in Nepal.

In Nepal due to the increased need of agricultural based economical activities and rural to urban transactions process there is a need of reliable and ready access to cadastral information. The Ministry of Land Reform and Management (MoLRM) has targeted to develop nationwide LIS for updating and dissemination of reliable and accurate land information. A LIS consists of two databases an administrative/legal system i.e. attribute data and a digital cadastral map i.e. spatial data containing the ownership, value and use of land. The Department of Land Information and Archive (DoLIA) has started developing district wise LIS. This approach needs much more resources in comparison to the centralized LIS. From financial perspective the updating of cadastral information is much more expensive than the land registry information. So, there is a need of determination of appropriate ‘‘Activity Model’’ for cadastral information updating process.This research paper provides an approach for determination of appropriate ‘Activity Model’ for cadastral information updating in Nepal. The Principal - Agent (PA) theory approach has been used for the determination of appropriate ‘Activity Model’. Six different options according to the P-A relationships were evaluated with twenty institutional and technical parameters and found that CC (central authority and central activity) is optimal for cadastral information updating procedure. Eight different processes for the cadastral information updating are identified and modeled them using object oriented modeling techniques with UML activity diagram. Two ways of verification has been used to test the model. The model is conceptually tested developing use cases with the help of activity diagram. The feasibility of the model is tested using Arc cadastre software with the direct link to geodatabase.

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