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MalariaGEN is a data-sharing network that enables groups around the world to work together on the genomic epidemiology of malaria. Here we describe a new release of curated genome variation data on 7,000 Plasmodium falciparum samples from MalariaGEN partner studies in 28 malaria-endemic countries. High-quality genotype calls on 3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and short indels were produced using a standardised analysis pipeline. Copy number variants associated with drug resistance and structural variants that cause failure of rapid diagnostic tests were also analysed. Almost all samples showed genetic evidence of resistance to at least one antimalarial drug, and some samples from Southeast Asia carried markers of resistance to six commonly-used drugs. Genes expressed during the mosquito stage of the parasite life-cycle are prominent among loci that show strong geographic differentiation. By continuing to enlarge this open data resource we aim to facilitate research into the evolutionary processes affecting malaria control and to accelerate development of the surveillance toolkit required for malaria elimination.

MalariaGEN is a data-sharing network that enables groups around the world to work together on the genomic epidemiology of malaria. Here we describe a new release of curated genome variation data on 7,000 Plasmodium falciparum samples from MalariaGEN partner studies in 28 malaria-endemic countries. High-quality genotype calls on 3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and short indels were produced using a standardised analysis pipeline. Copy number variants associated with drug resistance and structural variants that cause failure of rapid diagnostic tests were also analysed. Almost all samples showed genetic evidence of resistance to at least one antimalarial drug, and some samples from Southeast Asia carried markers of resistance to six commonly-used drugs. Genes expressed during the mosquito stage of the parasite life-cycle are prominent among loci that show strong geographic differentiation. By continuing to enlarge this open data resource we aim to facilitate research into the evolutionary processes affecting malaria control and to accelerate development of the surveillance toolkit required for malaria elimination.

MalariaGEN is a data-sharing network that enables groups around the world to work together on the genomic epidemiology of malaria. Here we describe a new release of curated genome variation data on 7,000 Plasmodium falciparum samples from MalariaGEN partner studies in 28 malaria-endemic countries. High-quality genotype calls on 3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and short indels were produced using a standardised analysis pipeline. Copy number variants associated with drug resistance and structural variants that cause failure of rapid diagnostic tests were also analysed. Almost all samples showed genetic evidence of resistance to at least one antimalarial drug, and some samples from Southeast Asia carried markers of resistance to six commonly-used drugs. Genes expressed during the mosquito stage of the parasite life-cycle are prominent among loci that show strong geographic differentiation. By continuing to enlarge this open data resource we aim to facilitate research into the evolutionary processes affecting malaria control and to accelerate development of the surveillance toolkit required for malaria elimination.

Background: The estimation of Plasmodium falciparum parasitaemia can vary according to the method used. Recently, droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) has been proposed as a promising approach in the molecular quantitation of Plasmodium, but its ability to predict the actual parasitaemia on clinical samples has not been largely investigated. Moreover, the possibility of applying the ddPCR-sensitive method to serum samples has never been explored. Methods: We used, for the first time, ddPCR on both blood and serum to detect the DNA of P. falciparum in 52 paired samples from 26 patients. ddPCR was compared with loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and rtPCR. The correlation between the ddPCR results, microscopy, and clinical parameters was examined. Results: ddPCR and microscopy were found to be strongly correlated (&rho, (26) = 0.83111, p &lt, 0.0001) in blood. Samples deviating from the correlation were partially explained by clinical parameters. In serum samples, ddPCR revealed the best performance in detecting P. falciparum DNA, with 77% positive samples among malaria subjects. Conclusion: Absolute quantitation by ddPCR can be a flexible technique for Plasmodium detection, with potential application in the diagnosis of malaria. In particular, ddPCR is a powerful approach for Plasmodium DNA analysis on serum when blood samples are unavailable.

Background Transfusion with Plasmodium-infected blood represents a risk for malaria transmission, a rare but severe event. Several non-endemic countries implement a strategy for the screening of candidate blood donors including questionnaire for the identification of at-risk subjects and laboratory testing of blood samples, often serology-based, with temporary deferral from donation for individuals with a positive result. In Italy, the most recent legislation, issued in November 2015, introduced the use of serological tests for the detection of anti-Plasmodium antibodies. Methods In the absence of a gold standard for malaria serology, the aim of this work was to evaluate five commercial ELISA kits, and to determine their accuracy (sensitivity and specificity) in comparison to immuno-fluorescence antibody test (IFAT), and their agreement (concordance of results). Serum samples from malaria patients or from subjects with malaria history (N = 64), malaria naïve patients with other parasitic infections (N = 15), malaria naïve blood donors (N = 8) and malaria exposed candidate blood donors (N = 36) were tested. Results The specificity of all ELISA kits was 100%, while sensitivity ranged between 53 and 64% when compared to IFAT on malaria patients samples. When tested on candidate blood donors’ samples, ELISA kits showed highly variable agreement (42–94%) raising the possibility that the same individual could be included or excluded from donation depending on the test in use by the transfusion centre. Conclusions These preliminary results indicate how the lack of a gold standard for malaria serology must be taken into account in the application and future revision of current legislation. There is need of developing more sensitive serological assays. Moreover, the adoption of a unique serological test at national level is recommended, as well as the development of screening algorithms based on multiple laboratory tests, including molecular assays. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-019-2650-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background: Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae infections are scarcely studied in sub-Saharan Africa, where the Plasmodium falciparum species predominates. The objective of this study is to investigate the prevalence of P. ovale and P. malariae infections and their relationship with common red blood cell polymorphisms in a cohort of 509 individuals from Uganda. Methods: Three cross-sectional surveys were conducted in individuals of 1–10 and >20 y of age from the Apac district at baseline and 6 and 16 weeks after drug treatment. Malaria infections were assessed by polymerase chain reaction and genotyping was performed for the sickle-cell allele, α-thalassaemia and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Results: At baseline, the prevalence of infection was 7.5%, 12.6% and 57.4% for P. ovale, P. malariae and P. falciparum species, respectively. Co-infections were present in 14.1% of individuals, all including P. falciparum parasites. In children 1–5 y of age, the prevalence of P. ovale mono-infections increased significantly from 1.7% to 7.3% over time (p=0.004) while the prevalence of P. malariae and P. falciparum infections declined significantly during this study. After adjusting for confounding and multiple testing, only α-thalassaemia had a statistically significant increase in the odds of P. falciparum infections (odds ratio 1.93 [95% confidence interval 1.26 to 2.94]). Conclusions: Common red blood cell polymorphisms do not show strong effects on mild Plasmodium infections in this Ugandan population. To understand the extent of this result, similar studies should be carried out in other populations using larger cohorts.

Background Transfusion-transmitted malaria (TTM) is an accidental Plasmodium infection caused by whole blood or a blood component transfusion from a malaria infected donor to a recipient. Infected blood transfusions directly release malaria parasites in the recipient’s bloodstream triggering the development of high risk complications, and potentially leading to a fatal outcome especially in individuals with no previous exposure to malaria or in immuno-compromised patients. A systematic review was conducted on TTM case reports in non-endemic areas to describe the epidemiological characteristics of blood donors and recipients. Methods Relevant articles were retrieved from Pubmed, EMBASE, Scopus, and LILACS. From each selected study the following data were extracted: study area, gender and age of blood donor and recipient, blood component associated with TTM, Plasmodium species, malaria diagnostic method employed, blood donor screening method, incubation period between the infected transfusion and the onset of clinical symptoms in the recipient, time elapsed between the clinical symptoms and the diagnosis of malaria, infection outcome, country of origin of the blood donor and time of the last potential malaria exposure. Results Plasmodium species were detected in 100 TTM case reports with a different frequency: 45% Plasmodium falciparum, 30% Plasmodium malariae, 16% Plasmodium vivax, 4% Plasmodium ovale, 2% Plasmodium knowlesi, 1% mixed infection P. falciparum/P. malariae. The majority of fatal outcomes (11/45) was caused by P. falciparum whilst the other fatalities occurred in individuals infected by P. malariae (2/30) and P. ovale (1/4). However, non P. falciparum fatalities were not attributed directly to malaria. The incubation time for all Plasmodium species TTM case reports was longer than what expected in natural infections. This difference was statistically significant for P. malariae (p = 0.006). A longer incubation time in the recipient together with a chronic infection at low parasite density of the donor makes P. malariae a subtle but not negligible risk for blood safety aside from P. falciparum. Conclusions TTM risk needs to be taken into account in order to enhance the safety of the blood supply chain from donors to recipients by means of appropriate diagnostic tools.

A number of human genetic polymorphisms are prevalent in tropical populations and appear to offer protection against symptomatic and/or severe malaria. We compared the prevalence of four polymorphisms, the sickle hemoglobin mutation (β globin E6V), the α-thalassemia 3.7kb deletion, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency caused by the common African variant (G6PD A-), and the CD36 T188G mutation in 1344 individuals residing in districts in eastern (Tororo), south-central (Jinja), and southwestern (Kanungu) Uganda. Genes of interest were amplified, amplicons subjected to mutation-specific restriction endonuclease digestion (for sickle hemoglobin, G6PD A-, and CD36 T188G), reaction products resolved by electrophoresis, and genotypes determined based on the sizes of reaction products. Mutant genotypes were common, with many more heterozygous than homozygous alleles identified. The prevalences (heterozygotes plus homozygotes) of sickle hemoglobin (28% Tororo, 25% Jinja, 7% Kanungu), α-thalassemia (53% Tororo, 45% Jinja, 18% Kanungu) and G6PD A- (29% Tororo, 18% Jinja, 8% Kanungu) were significantly greater in Tororo and Jinja compared to Kanungu (p

One approach to investigate if human genetic variation influences the selection of Plasmodium falciparum drug resistance is to compare the frequency of resistant infections among human populations differing in their genetic background and living in the same epidemiological context. A further complementary approach consists in comparing drug resistance among subjects differing for genes involved in drug metabolism. Here we report, from malariological surveys performed in Burkina Faso, that the prevalence of P. falciparum chloroquine-resistant infections (pfcrt 76T and/or pfmdr1 86Y alleles) differs among sympatric ethnic groups, being higher in the Mossi and Rimaibe groups than in the Fulani group (odds ratio [OR], 2.24; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.27-3.92; P = .007). The association analysis revealed that the human CYP2C8*2 variant, known to determine a poor drug metabolizer phenotype, was associated with P. falciparum chloroquine-resistant infections (OR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.13-2.43; P = .008). This variant is more frequent in the Mossi-Rimaibe group (23.7% ± 1.4%) than in the Fulani group (9.9% ± 2.5%; P = .0003). This study provides an example of how host genetic variation may influence the selection dynamics of a pathogen's drug resistance.

DNA sequence data reveal extensive polymorphism in the virulent, human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The extent of polymorphism at apparently neutral-evolving loci points to a common ancestor for this species that is no more recent than approximately 150,000-200,000 years ago. In addition, there is evidence of balanced polymorphisms at certain antigen-encoding loci, some of which have been maintained for millions of years. Thus, we can reject the hypothesis that this species underwent a recent extreme bottleneck (i.e. one in which the population was reduced to a single haploid genotype). However, it is possible that less-severe bottlenecks have occurred.

Here we address the issue of the possible interplay between host genetic variation and the risk of acquiring Plasmodium falciparum drug-resistant strains. The involvement of human genetic variation as a possible co-factor in the selection and spread of P. falciparum drug resistance is a new tool in the study of malaria and possibly of other infectious diseases. The driving hypothesis of this approach is that parasite drug resistance could be affected both by ethnicity and human variability in the genes encoding for enzymes that metabolise antimalarials (cytochrome P450 liver enzymes). Understanding if parasite drug sensitivity is influenced and possibly modulated by human diversity can contribute to a better knowledge and control of the spread of drug resistance. So far, few studies have addressed this strategic issue. To explore this hypothesis we carried out an association analysis on 506 human/P. falciparum DNA samples from adult asymptomatic subjects belonging to three sympatric ethnic groups of Burkina Faso, an area of hyperendemic malaria in West Africa. Here we report that the prevalence of chloroquine-resistant infections (pfcrt 76T and/or pfmdr1 86Y) differs among sympatric ethnic groups, being higher in Mossi and Rimaibe compared to Fulani (OR: 2.24; 1.27-3.92; P = 0.007). Moreover, the human CYP2C8*2 variant, known to determine a poor drug metaboliser phenotype, is associated with P. falciparum chloroquine-resistant infections (OR: 1.66; 1.13-2.43; P = 0.008). The results strongly suggest that human genetic variation affects the dynamics of selection of parasite drug-resistance. We strongly believe that these observations are of general interest and may have important implications in public health.

The optimal immune response to malaria infection comprises rapid induction of inflammatory responses promptly counteracted by regulatory mechanisms to prevent immunopathology. To evaluate the role of dendritic cells (DC) in the balance of parasite-induced inflammatory/anti-inflammatory mechanisms, we studied the activity of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDC), previously exposed to soluble extracts of Plasmodium falciparum -infected red blood cells ( Pf SE), in the differentiation of CD4 cells isolated from donors never exposed to malaria infection. We show that MDDC exposed to Pf SE are extremely efficient to induce a contemporary differentiation of TH1 effector cells and T regulatory (Treg) cells in CD4 T cells even when exposed to low concentrations of parasitic extracts. Treg cells induced by MDDC infected with Pf SE (MDDC- Pf SE) produce transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and interleukin 10 (IL-10) and are endowed with strong suppressive properties. They also show phenotypical and functional peculiarities, such as the contemporary expression of markers of Treg and TH1 differentiation and higher sensitivity to TLR4 ligands both inducing an increasing production of suppressive cytokines. On the whole, our data indicate that MDDC exposed to Pf SE orchestrate a well-balanced immune response with timely differentiation of TH1 and Treg cells in CD4 cells from nonimmune donors and suggest that, during the infection, the role of MDCC could be particularly relevant in low-parasitemia conditions.

Contains fulltext : 118655.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) The role of submicroscopic infections in modulating malaria antibody responses is poorly understood and requires longitudinal studies. A cohort of 249 children /=20 years was recruited in an area of intense malaria transmission in Apac, Uganda and treated with artemether/lumefantrine at enrolment. Parasite carriage was determined at enrolment and after 6 and 16 weeks using microscopy and PCR. Antibody prevalence and titres to circumsporozoite protein, apical membrane antigen-1 (AMA-1), merozoite surface protein-1 (MSP-119 ), merozoite surface protein-2 (MSP-2) and Anopheles gambiae salivary gland protein 6 (gSG6) were determined by ELISA. Plasmodium falciparum infections were detected in 38.1% (194/509) of the individuals by microscopy and in 57.1% (284/493) of the individuals by PCR at enrolment. Antibody prevalence and titre against AMA-1, MSP-119 , MSP-2 and gSG6 were related to concurrent (sub-)microscopic parasitaemia. Responses were stable in children who were continuously infected with malaria parasites but declined in children who were never parasitaemic during the study or were not re-infected after treatment. These findings indicate that continued malaria infections are required to maintain antibody titres in an area of intense malaria transmission.

Salivary proteins injected by blood feeding arthropods into their hosts evoke a saliva-specific humoral response which can be useful to evaluate exposure to bites of disease vectors. However, saliva of hematophagous arthropods is a complex cocktail of bioactive factors and its use in immunoassays can be misleading because of potential cross-reactivity to other antigens. Toward the development of a serological marker of exposure to Afrotropical malaria vectors we expressed the Anopheles gambiae gSG6, a small anopheline-specific salivary protein, and we measured the anti-gSG6 IgG response in individuals from a malaria hyperendemic area of Burkina Faso, West Africa. The gSG6 protein was immunogenic and anti-gSG6 IgG levels and/or prevalence increased in exposed individuals during the malaria transmission/rainy season. Moreover, this response dropped during the intervening low transmission/dry season, suggesting it is sensitive enough to detect variation in vector density. Members of the Fulani ethnic group showed higher anti-gSG6 IgG response as compared to Mossi, a result consistent with the stronger immune reactivity reported in this group. Remarkably, anti-gSG6 IgG levels among responders were high in children and gradually declined with age. This unusual pattern, opposite to the one observed with Plasmodium antigens, is compatible with a progressive desensitization to mosquito saliva and may be linked to the continued exposure to bites of anopheline mosquitoes. Overall, the humoral anti-gSG6 IgG response appears a reliable serological indicator of exposure to bites of the main African malaria vectors (An. gambiae, Anopheles arabiensis and, possibly, Anopheles funestus) and it may be exploited for malaria epidemiological studies, development of risk maps and evaluation of anti-vector measures. In addition, the gSG6 protein may represent a powerful model system to get a deeper understanding of molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the immune tolerance and progressive desensitization to insect salivary allergens.

Although Plasmodium falciparum apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) is a leading malaria vaccine candidate, extensive allelic diversity may compromise its vaccine potential. We have previously shown that naturally acquired antibodies to AMA1 were associated with protection from clinical malaria in this Kenyan population. To assess the impact of allelic diversity on naturally acquired immunity, we first sequenced the ectodomain-encoding region of P. falciparum ama1 from subjects with asymptomatic, mild, and severe malaria and measured allele frequency distributions. We then measured antibodies to three allelic AMA1 proteins (AMA1_3D7, AMA1_FVO, and AMA1_HB3) and used competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) to analyze allele-specific antibodies. Seventy-eight unique haplotypes were identified from 129 alleles sampled. No clustering of allelic haplotypes with disease severity or year of sampling was observed. Differences in nucleotide frequencies in clinical (severe plus mild malaria) versus asymptomatic infections were observed at 16 polymorphic positions. Allele frequency distributions were indicative of balancing selection, with the strongest signature being identified in domain III (Tajima's D = 2.51; P < 0.05). Antibody reactivities to each of the three allelic AMA1 proteins were highly correlated ( P < 0.001 for all pairwise comparisons). Although antibodies to conserved epitopes were abundant, 48% of selected children with anti-AMA1 IgG ( n = 106) had detectable reactivity to allele-specific epitopes as determined by a competition ELISA. Antibodies to both conserved and allele-specific epitopes in AMA1 may contribute to clinical protection.

Phylogenetic analyses of the mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb), apicoplast caseinolytic protease C (clpC), and 18S rRNA sequences of Plasmodium isolates from chimpanzees along with those of the virulent human malaria parasite P. falciparum showed that the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) malaria parasites, assigned by Rich et al. (2009; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106, 14902–14907) to P. reichenowi, constitute a paraphyletic assemblage. The assumption that P. falciparum diverged from P. reichenowi as recently as 5,000–50,000 years ago would require a rate of synonymous substitution/site/year in cytb and clpC on the order of 10−5–10−6, several orders of magnitude higher than any known from eukaryotic organelle genomes, and would imply an unrealistically recent timing of the most recent common ancestor of P. falciparum mitochondrial genomes. The available data are thus most consistent with the hypothesis that P. reichenowi (in the strict sense) and P. falciparum co-speciated with their hosts about 5–7 million years ago.

Plasmodium falciparum represents one of the strongest selective forces on the human genome. This stable and perennial pressure has contributed to the progressive accumulation in the exposed populations of genetic adaptations to malaria. Descriptive genetic epidemiology provides the initial step of a logical procedure of consequential phases spanning from the identification of genes involved in the resistance/susceptibility to diseases, to the determination of the underlying mechanisms and finally to the possible translation of the acquired knowledge in new control tools. In malaria, the rational development of this strategy is traditionally based on complementary interactions of heterogeneous disciplines going from epidemiology to vaccinology passing through genetics, pathogenesis and immunology. New tools including expression profile analysis and genome-wide association studies are recently available to explore the complex interactions of host-parasite co-evolution. Particularly, the combination of genome-wide association studies with large multi-centre initiatives can overcome the limits of previous results due to local population dynamics. Thus, we anticipate substantial advances in the interpretation and validation of the effects of genetic variation on malaria susceptibility, and thereby on molecular mechanisms of protective immune responses and pathogenesis.

Individuals living in areas where malaria is endemic are repeatedly exposed to many different malaria parasite antigens. Studies on naturally acquired antibody-mediated immunity to clinical malaria have largely focused on the presence of responses to individual antigens and their associations with decreased morbidity. We hypothesized that the breadth (number of important targets to which antibodies were made) and magnitude (antibody level measured in a random serum sample) of the antibody response were important predictors of protection from clinical malaria. We analyzed naturally acquired antibodies to five leadingPlasmodium falciparummerozoite-stage vaccine candidate antigens, and schizont extract, in Kenyan children monitored for uncomplicated malaria for 6 months (n= 119). Serum antibody levels to apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) and merozoite surface protein antigens (MSP-1 block 2, MSP-2, and MSP-3) were inversely related to the probability of developing malaria, but levels to MSP-119and erythrocyte binding antigen (EBA-175) were not. The risk of malaria was also inversely associated with increasing breadth of antibody specificities, with none of the children who simultaneously had high antibody levels to five or more antigens experiencing a clinical episode (17/119; 15%;P= 0.0006). Particular combinations of antibodies (AMA1, MSP-2, and MSP-3) were more strongly predictive of protection than others. The results were validated in a larger, separate case-control study whose end point was malaria severe enough to warrant hospital admission (n= 387). These findings suggest that under natural exposure, immunity to malaria may result from high titers antibodies to multiple antigenic targets and support the idea of testing combination blood-stage vaccines optimized to induce similar antibody profiles.

Previous interethnic comparative studies on the susceptibility to malaria performed in West Africa showed that Fulani are more resistant to Plasmodium falciparum malaria than are sympatric ethnic groups. This lower susceptibility is not associated to classic malaria-resistance genes, and the analysis of the immune response to P. falciparum sporozoite and blood stage antigens, as well as non-malaria antigens, revealed higher immune reactivity in Fulani. In the present study we compared the expression profile of a panel of genes involved in immune response in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from Fulani and sympatric Mossi from Burkina Faso. An increased expression of T helper 1 (TH1)-related genes (IL-18, IFNγ, and TBX21) and TH2-related genes (IL-4 and GATA3) and a reduced expression of genes distinctive of T regulatory activity (CTLA4 and FOXP3) were observed in Fulani. Microarray analysis on RNA from CD4 + CD25 + (T regulatory) cells, performed with a panel of cDNA probes specific for 96 genes involved in immune modulation, indicated obvious differences between the two ethnic groups with 23% of genes, including TGFβ, TGFβRs, CTLA4, and FOXP3, less expressed in Fulani compared with Mossi and European donors not exposed to malaria. As further indications of a low T regulatory cell activity, Fulani showed lower serum levels of TGFβ and higher concentrations of the proinflammatory chemokines CXCL10 and CCL22 compared with Mossi; moreover, the proliferative response of Fulani to malaria antigens was not affected by the depletion of CD25 + regulatory cells whereas that of Mossi was significantly increased. The results suggest that the higher resistance to malaria of the Fulani could derive from a functional deficit of T regulatory cells.

A recently proposed mechanism of protection for haemoglobin C (HbC; β6Glu←Lys) links an abnormal display of PfEMP1, an antigen involved in malaria pathogenesis, on the surface of HbC infected erythrocytes together with the observation of reduced cytoadhesion of parasitized erythrocytes and impaired rosetting in vitro. We investigated the impact of this hypothesis on the development of acquired immunity against Plasmodium falciparum variant surface antigens (VSA) encoding PfEMP1 in HbC in comparison with HbA and HbS carriers of Burkina Faso. We measured: i) total IgG against a single VSA, A4U, and against a panel of VSA from severe malaria cases in human sera from urban and rural areas of Burkina Faso of different haemoglobin genotypes (CC, AC, AS, SC, SS); ii) total IgG against recombinant proteins of P. falciparum asexual sporozoite, blood stage antigens, and parasite schizont extract; iii) total IgG against tetanus toxoid. Results showed that the reported abnormal cell-surface display of PfEMP1 on HbC infected erythrocytes observed in vitro is not assodated to lower anti- PfEMP1 response in vivo. Higher immune response against the VSA panel and malaria antigens were observed in all adaptive genotypes containing at least one allelic variant HbC or HbS in the low transmission urban area whereas no differences were detected in the high transmission rural area. In both contexts the response against tetanus toxoid was not influenced by the β-globin genotype. These findings suggest that both HbC and HbS affect the early development of naturally acquired immunity against malaria. The enhanced immune reactivity in both HbC and HbS carriers supports the hypothesis that the protection against malaria of these adaptive genotypes might be at least partially mediated by acquired immunity against malaria. © 2007 Verra et al.

RICH et al. ([1998][1]) have recently proposed that the current world population of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum consists of individuals descended from a single haploid genotype or strain (malarial Eve) that occurred between 24,500 and 57,500 years ago. They base this conclusion

Erythrocyte binding antigens of Plasmodium falciparum are involved in erythrocyte invasion, and may be targets of acquired immunity. Of the five eba genes, protein products have been detected for eba-175, eba-181 and eba-140, but not for psieba-165 or ebl-1, providing opportunity for comparative analysis of genetic variation to identify selection. Region II of each of these genes was sequenced from a cross-sectional sample of parasites in an endemic Kenyan population, and the frequency distributions of polymorphisms analysed. A positive value of Tajima's D was observed for eba-175 (D=1.13) indicating an excess of intermediate frequency polymorphisms, while all other genes had negative values, the most negative being ebl-1 (D=-2.35) followed by psieba-165 (D=-1.79). The eba-175 and ebl-1 genes were then studied in a sample of parasites from Thailand, for which a positive Tajima's D value was again observed for eba-175 (D=1.79), and a negative value for ebl-1 (D=-1.85). This indicates that eba-175 is under balancing selection in each population, in strong contrast to the other members of the gene family, particularly ebl-1 and psieba-165 that may have been under recent directional selection. Population expansion simulations were performed under a neutral model, further supporting the departures from neutrality of these genes.

We have characterized Plasmodium falciparum genotypes among the Mossi and Fulani sympatric ethnic groups in villages in Burkina Faso during the rainy season. Differences in clinical malaria presentation and in immune responses to malaria occur between the two groups. Asexual parasite rate, density, and gametocyte rate were higher among the Mossi than the Fulani. There was no difference in frequencies of alleles of the P. falciparum merozoite surface protein 1 (msp-1), msp-2, and glutamate-rich protein (glurp) genes among the parasites in each group. However, there were significant differences in the mean number of P. falciparum clones in the two populations, with there being more in the Mossi than in the Fulani. This effect was especially marked in older children. These differences can most probably be attributed to genetic differences in immune responsiveness to malaria between the two ethnic groups.

Previous studies identified an allelic variant of the IL4 promoter region (IL4-589T) that appears to enhance the transcriptional activity of IL4, and is associated with increased IgE levels. Total serum IgE levels are elevated in malaria endemic regions, and higher in children with severe malaria. Here, we investigated the relationship of the IL4-589C/T polymorphism with severity of the disease in a case-control study of severe malaria in Burkina Faso, West Africa. No association between the IL4-589T and severe malaria was observed. No difference in Plasmodium falciparum-specific IgE was detected between severe and uncomplicated malaria patients. Among children with severe malaria, total IgE levels were significantly elevated in those carrying the IL4-589T allele (P = 0.018). In children with uncomplicated malaria, no significant difference was found. These results raise the possibility that there is a relationship between susceptibility to severe malaria, IgE production and genetic variation in the IL4 region, which merits further investigation in other epidemiological settings.

Haemoglobin C (HbC; beta6Glu --> Lys) is common in malarious areas of West Africa, especially in Burkina Faso. Conclusive evidence exists on the protective role against severe malaria of haemoglobin S (HbS; beta6Glu --> Val) heterozygosity, whereas conflicting results for the HbC trait have been reported and no epidemiological data exist on the possible role of the HbCC genotype. In vitro studies suggested that HbCC erythrocytes fail to support the growth of P. falciparum but HbC homozygotes with high P. falciparum parasitaemias have been observed. Here we show, in a large case-control study performed in Burkina Faso on 4,348 Mossi subjects, that HbC is associated with a 29% reduction in risk of clinical malaria in HbAC heterozygotes (P = 0.0008) and of 93% in HbCC homozygotes (P = 0.0011). These findings, together with the limited pathology of HbAC and HbCC compared to the severely disadvantaged HbSS and HbSC genotypes and the low betaS gene frequency in the geographic epicentre of betaC, support the hypothesis that, in the long term and in the absence of malaria control, HbC would replace HbS in central West Africa.

It has been proposed that the virulent human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum underwent a recent severe population bottleneck. In order to test this hypothesis, we estimated the effective population size of this species from the patterns of nucleotide substitution at 23 nuclear protein-coding loci, using a variety of methods based on coalescent theory. Both simple methods and phylogenetically based maximum-likelihood methods yielded the conclusion that the effective population size of this species has been of the order of at least 10(5) for the past 300,000-400,000 years.

The Fulani are less clinically susceptible and more immunologically responsive to malaria than neighbouring ethnic groups. Here we report that anti-malarial antibody levels show a wide distribution amongst the Fulani themselves, raising the possibility that quantitative analysis within the Fulani may be an efficient way of screening for important genetic factors. The Th2 cytokine interleukin-4 is an obvious candidate: in Fulani, the IL4-524 T allele is at high frequency and is associated with elevated antibody levels against malaria antigens. These data highlight the possibility of combining inter- and intra-ethnic comparisons to characterize critical determinants of malarial immunity in a natural setting.

Genetic divergence between population samples ofOrchis laxiflora and ofO. palustris from various European locations was studied by electrophoretic analysis of 25 enzyme loci. An average genetic distance of DNei = 1.24 was found between the two taxa, with 12 out of 25 loci showing alternative alleles (diagnostic loci). Genetic heterogeneity was observed within bothO. laxiflora andO. palustris, when northern and southeastern populations were compared, being lower in the former taxon (D = 0.06), than in the latter (D = 0.16). Karyologically, 2n = 36 was found for bothO. laxiflora andO. palustris. O. laxiflora andO. palustris produce hybrids, described asO. ×intermedia. Genotype analysis of several sympatric samples showed the presence of hybrid zones, including F1 hybrids and, in low proportions, recombinant classes, putatively assigned to Fn and backcrosses, as well as a few introgressed individuals of both taxa. These data indicate that hybrids are only partially fertile, with a very limited mixing up of the two parental gene pools; this is also shown by the lack of significant lowering of genetic distances when sympatric and allopatric heterospecific samples are compared. Accordingly,O. laxiflora andO. palustris form a syngameon; nevertheless they can be considered as good taxonomic species, with virtually distinct gene pools, which evolve independently. The genetic variability inO. laxiflora andO. palustris is remarkably low (\(\bar H\)e = 0.05 and\(\bar H\)e = 0.02, respectively). In particular, nearly complete absence of polymorphic loci was found inO. palustris from northcentral Europe. Two hypotheses are considered to explain the low genetic variability of this endangered species.

Background Fulani ethnic group individuals are less susceptible than sympatric Mossi ethnic group, in term of malaria infection severity, and differ in antibody production against malaria antigens. The differences in susceptibility to malaria between Fulani and Mossi ethnic groups are thought to be regulated by different genetic backgrounds and offer the opportunity to compare haematological parameters, Tregs and γδT cell profiles in seasonal and stable malaria transmission settings in Burkina Faso. The study was conducted at two different time points i.e. during the high and low malaria transmission period. Results Two cross-sectional surveys were undertaken in adults above 20 years belonging either to the Fulani or the Mossi ethnic groups 1) at the peak of the malaria transmission season and 2) during the middle of the low malaria transmission season. Full blood counts, proportions of Tregs and γδ T cells were measured at both time-points. As previously shown the Fulani and Mossi ethnic groups showed a consistent difference in P. falciparum infection rates and parasite load. Differential white blood cell counts showed that the absolute lymphocyte counts were higher in the Mossi than in the Fulani ethnic group at both time points. While the proportion of CD4+CD25high was higher in the Fulani ethnic group at the peak of malaria transmission season (p = 0.03), no clear pattern emerged for T regulatory cells expressing FoxP3+ and CD127low. However CD3+γδ+ subpopulations were found to be higher in the Fulani compared to the Mossi ethnic group, and this difference was statistically significant at both time-points (p = 0.004 at low transmission season and p = 0.04 at peak of transmission). Conclusion Our findings on regulatory T cell phenotypes suggest an interesting role for immune regulatory mechanisms in response to malaria. The study also suggests that TCRγδ + cells might contribute to the protection against malaria in the Fulani ethnic group involving their reported parasite inhibitory activities.