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The Foreign Agent Law has had devastating effects on Russia’s society and political regime. It has played a key role in Russia's transition from a hybrid regime to an authoritarian regime. The many amendments of the Foreign Agent Law over the years have led to a progressive tightening of human rights and crushing of civil society. The Foreign Agent Law violates every single characteristic of the rule of law. It undermines Russia’s constitution and international human rights treaties. Its language is unclear and inaccessible to the common people, its effects unforeseeable and discriminatory, and its application arbitrary. With a decimated civil society, the Russian people are left without many tools to protect themselves against State repression. As a result, the Kremlin has now more room to impose its will than ever before.

Zoe Ong’s capstone project is a collage of personal poetry and reflections, in an effort to explore the intersection between poetry and human rights advocacy. Her project investigates her own perception of human rights, her relationship to power, education and the interaction between human rights and poetry; the project also presents a discussion guide on poetic work that directly discusses human rights issues and abuses. She hopes that the end result provides space for the reader’s own self-reflection, interaction with creative arts, and introspection, with an orientation towards action and justice in the human rights space.

La recherche prend place dans le quotidien actuel de la sphère éducationnelle en Iran. Remarquons que l’Iran est État non occidental et islamique, mais ayant néanmoins adhéré au principe, plutôt occidental, de la Convention internationale sur les droits de l’enfant. Cette recherche s’insère dans une continuité de recherche au soutien des droits humains. Elle propose une voie d’empowerment aux groupes iraniens ouverts à la démocratie, mais aussi aux mouvements éducatifs soucieux des droits fondamentaux de la personne. Divisé en quatre chapitres, le questionnement hybride de la thèse conduit à un essai interdisciplinaire critique bénéficiant aux trois disciplines du droit, de la philosophie et de l'étude empirique. Face au système juridique international et iranien d'un point de vue juridique classique, le chapitre philosophique tend à répondre à la question de «que pourrait-on considérer non seulement du droit à l'éducation, mais également du droit à une « éducation appropriée » fondée sur des motifs éthiques et philosophiques dans le sens où cela conviendrait mieux à la culture iranienne et aux habitudes sociales ». Le chapitre empirique recherche donc "Dans l'action en faveur des droits des enfants iraniens, que révèlent les représentations sociales iraniennes au sujet du fossé potentiel entre un concept idéal de «proper education» et la vie quotidienne des enfants? " À partir d’une approche philosophique— plus précisément d’une éthique de la vertu—, la thèse propose le concept d’«éducation appropriée » [proper education] comme approche critique des positions internationales et internes du droit à l’éducation de l’enfant. Y est présenté comme «éducation appropriée » un droit moral et juridique pour les enfants : ce droit relève alors de la catégorie des droits au développement qui servent le droit à un avenir ouvert et ainsi que le droit de s'épanouir pleinement. Le recours à ce concept propose ainsi conception du droit à l’éducation harmonisée au contexte iranien actuel. D'un point de vue empirique, à partir d’une approche inductive typique de la Human Rights Advocacy approach et sur la base de quatre-vingts (80) entretiens auprès d’enfants et d’enseignants, sont observés et analysés les écarts entre le droit officiel et les façons dont ils sont vécus, mobilisés, pensés ou niés dans la sphère de l’éducation iranienne aujourd’hui. Enfin, l’essai juridique critique suggère que la gouvernance iranienne soit ouverte à une évolution vers une autorité contractuelle moderne dans le système éducatif pour être plus compatible avec les besoins psycho-émotionnels des enfants et en même temps pour d'appliquer des conseils politiques de l'éthique de la vertu à se déplacer vers une forme libérale de politiques éducatives qui promeuvent les vertus de l’autonomie et de la tolérance. Ils sont autant d’informations cruciales pour une gouvernance législative iranienne avisée, ancrée à une quête islamique de vertu tout autant qu’au bonheur des enfants., The research takes place in the current daily life of the educational sphere in Iran. It should be noted that Iran is a non-Western and Islamic state, but nonetheless adhered to the rather Western principles of the International Convention on the Rights of the Child. This research is part of a continuity of research in support of human rights. It offers a path of empowerment to Iranian groups open to democracy, but also to educational movements concerned with the fundamental rights of the person. Divided into four chapters, the hybrid questioning of the thesis leads to a critical interdisciplinary essay benefiting the three disciplines of law, philosophy and empirical study. Facing the international and Iranian legal system from a classical legal view, the philosophical chapter tends to respond to the question of “what could be considered not just the right to education, but the right to a “proper” education based in ethical and philosophical grounds in the sense that it would better suit Iranian culture and social habits than an allegedly “universal” [occidental] classical legal conception?". The empirical chapter, then, looks for the “Iranian social representations of the children’s rights that reveal the gap between the ideal expressed concept of “proper education” and day-to-day life of children?” with an advocative approach. From a philosophical view —more precisely from virtue ethics stand point—the thesis proposes the concept of "right to proper education" as a critical approach to the international and internal positions of the right to education for children. "Proper education" is presented as a moral and legal right for children under the category of developmental rights which serves the right to an open future and the right to maximizing self-fulfillment. It is also a conception of the right to education harmonized with the current Iranian Islamic context. From an empirical standpoint, starting from a typical inductive approach of the Human Rights Advocacy approach and based on more than eighty (80) interviews with children and teachers, the gaps between the official laws and the ways in which they are experienced, mobilized, thought of or denied in the sphere of today Iranian education, are observed and analyzed. Finally, the critical legal essay suggests the Iranian governance to be open to a shift toward a modern contractual authority in educational system to be more compatible with the psycho-emotional needs of children and at the same time to apply the virtue ethics political advice to move toward a liberal form of educational policies that promotes the virtues of autonomy and toleration. These are all crucial information for wise Iranian legislative governance rooted in an Islamic pursuit of virtues as well as the happiness of children.

Multiculturalism encourages psychologists to act as scholar-activists, who consider social justice at the heart of outreach, training, and clinical work. Promotion of social change addressing the ongoing negative effects of heterosexism benefits from unified efforts of the LGBTQ community and their allies. Scholars posit that the psychological detriments of heterosexism are more pronounced in cultures defined by conservative politics and “traditional” values. The “Bible Belt” is region of the United States where these ideals are reinforced by fundamentalist Christianity and woven into the practices of business, education, and daily community interaction. Scholars have examined the emotional and interpersonal experiences of LGBTQ people in the Bible Belt and similar cultural environments. Using consensual qualitative research (CQR), the current study highlights the psychological process of LGBTQ identity development, cognitive processes involved with advocacy work, and the behavioral interventions chosen by straight and cisgender identifying LGBTQ allies to counteract prejudice within the Bible Belt. 12 cisgender women, in various Bible Belt towns, were nominated by LGBTQ identifying individuals from the region, and participated in this study. In-person, semi-structured interviews, were audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using CQR methods. The results help define current Bible Belt culture, and provide an illustration of the Bible Belt ally, their developmental process, and how they approach advocacy efforts. Results indicated cultural consistencies across the Bible Belt, including: the pervasive nature of Christianity, “traditional” and conservative values, and social norms dictated by a desire to present the façade of harmony. Within their developmental process, participants highlighted the need to engage in critical thinking. Participants reported partaking in a wide range of advocacy work, with the bulk of their efforts representing relatively subtle and commonplace everyday acts of activism. These daily interventions are presented in categories and illuminated with direct quotes. Recommendations for research, education and training are provided.

The paper deals with the issue of protection of the right to respect for private and family life in European Court of Human Rights. This right is guaranteed at the level of major international law acts in the area of human rights protection: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 may be also referred to such acts. It’s suggested that ECtHR operating under the monitoring mechanism provided by the Convention pays conspicuous attention to issues of the right to respect for private and family life guaranteed under article 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. To support this claim corresponding statistics is brought forward. The content of private and family life concepts in ECtHR practice is studied. The Court’s understanding of invasion of private and family life on the part of the state under Part 2 Art. 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 and legal views of ECtHR are considered. Protection of human rights in the area of environmental conservation pursuant to Art. 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and corresponding elaborated approaches are studied., peer-reviewed

This handbook was created to share the experiences of alumni of the Human Rights Advocates Program at the Institute for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University, with aspiring human rights advocates around the globe.

The territory of Jammu and Kashmir is a contested space that is divided into Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir and a Pakistan-administered ‘Azad’ Kashmir. It continues to function as a flashpoint between India and Pakistan to the present-day. This ongoing conflict has its origins in the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 and the subsequent emergence of two independent nation-states, India and Pakistan. The discourse on Kashmir has mostly been dominated by Indian and Pakistani national narratives but since 2008, Kashmiri writers and public intellectuals have positioned themselves as equal opinion-makers in the conflict through the composition of life narratives. This dissertation focuses on narratives that are set in the disputed territory of Kashmir and/or have been composed by authors of both Kashmiri and Indian origin. Although Anglophone texts from Kashmir have been analyzed in journalistic writing and scholarly monographs in the past, this is the first study to exclusively and primarily focus on Kashmiri writing and to attempt to develop a theoretical framework within which this writing can be studied and analyzed. It is also the only analysis of Kashmiri narratives as texts operating in human rights frameworks and engaging in human rights claim-making. This work aims to shift normative scholarly theorizations of “human rights literature” or, more generally, narratives that can function in the field of rights. The narratives discussed in this thesis support the case for expanding the generic limits of stories that can be used to write rights. In all the texts treated in this work, human rights abuses are represented as dramatic interruptions in the everyday routines and joyful pursuits of their subjects, rather than only as de-contextualized acts of physical cruelty and torture.

The territory of Jammu and Kashmir is a contested space that is divided into Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir and a Pakistan-administered ‘Azad’ Kashmir. It continues to function as a flashpoint between India and Pakistan to the present-day. This ongoing conflict has its origins in the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 and the subsequent emergence of two independent nation-states, India and Pakistan. The discourse on Kashmir has mostly been dominated by Indian and Pakistani national narratives but since 2008, Kashmiri writers and public intellectuals have positioned themselves as equal opinion-makers in the conflict through the composition of life narratives. This dissertation focuses on narratives that are set in the disputed territory of Kashmir and/or have been composed by authors of both Kashmiri and Indian origin. Although Anglophone texts from Kashmir have been analyzed in journalistic writing and scholarly monographs in the past, this is the first study to exclusively and primarily focus on Kashmiri writing and to attempt to develop a theoretical framework within which this writing can be studied and analyzed. It is also the only analysis of Kashmiri narratives as texts operating in human rights frameworks and engaging in human rights claim-making. This work aims to shift normative scholarly theorizations of “human rights literature” or, more generally, narratives that can function in the field of rights. The narratives discussed in this thesis support the case for expanding the generic limits of stories that can be used to write rights. In all the texts treated in this work, human rights abuses are represented as dramatic interruptions in the everyday routines and joyful pursuits of their subjects, rather than only as de-contextualized acts of physical cruelty and torture.

The article focuses on the forms and mechanism of implementation of law policy, aspects of its interaction with different legal and social factors and determinants specifying its formation and enforcement.

Year 2015 marked the Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy. In his Bull of Indiction, Pope Francis called upon Catholics to return to the corporal works of mercy, including the welcoming of strangers.Solidarity with refugees has been a recurring theme of his papacy. In his address to the EU Parliament in 2014, for instance, Pope Francis called for a “united response to the question of migration”; he cautioned against allowing “the Mediterranean to become a vast cemetery” of people who come to Europe needing “acceptance and assistance.” Likewise, in addressing the US Congress in 2015, Pope Francis exhorted that “We must not be taken aback by their [refugee] numbers, but rather view them as persons, seeing their faces and listening to their stories, trying to respond as best we can to their situation.”, peer-reviewed

Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy is not only a well-known Russian writer, but a significant social leader who has made a great contribution to promoting unique political-legal views on law, government system, international relations, education and other important spheres of life. In the article the author provides an analysis of Tolstoy’s fundamental ideas considering major social fields. The reasons in personal life that affected his involvement in political and legal processes are studied. In the context of human rights protection Tolstoy actively acted on behalf of the Russian Doukhobors who had to emigrate at the end of XIXth-beginning of the XXth century from Russia to Canada. Many episodes in Tolstoy’s literary works are written on the real judicial cases, which demonstrated the legal system faults, unfairness of the existed social and political model. One of the major Tolstoy’s idea was pacifism, refusal of military actions in favor of diplomatic and peaceful conflict resolution that in years become more crucial in the modern society. Tostoy paid great attention to the analysis of the social structure of the Russian village, customary law of the peasants and their relations with state authorities. Tolstoy’s political and legal views present unique source of approaches and knowledge for minimization of the negative modern problems of Russian such as legal nihilism, law legal culture, corruption, bureaucracy. His literary heritage contains deep philosophical, methodological, fundamental ideas on the essence of life, mission of a human, role of the religion, civil and state institutions which could be considered as “eternal topics”, study of which for centuries showed constant interest and search by generations genuine values and constants of life., peer-reviewed

This study starts with an observation: human rights and humanitarianism are often conflated into one and the same thing, even by scholars of these respective fields. A muddled use of terminology makes this lack of clarity evident; as such, the importance and power of language and discourse lies at the centre of this project. This thesis is set out to explore intersections and map convergences of human rights and humanitarianism—as discourses, as practices, and as related bodies of law (International Human Rights Law (IHRL) and Humanitarian Law (IHL)). In doing so, it seeks to draw attention to the beneficial potential of an interaction that can –at times– be synergetic, but also to the tensions it creates, when, far from mutually strengthening, human rights and humanitarianism work in contradiction. First, this thesis analyses the rapprochement between IHL and IHRL. This initial focus on the legal frameworks sets the ground for the subsequent study of converging discourses and practices, but it is also intrinsically valuable, laying bare some of the tensions around the jurisdictions, scopes of application, and protections afforded by these bodies of law. Second, focusing on four big player – two on the human rights side (Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch), and two on the humanitarian side (the International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins Sans Frontières), this thesis turns to analysing dominant discourses. Noting the increased overlap in scopes of activities, and thus in discourse, it studies the impacts of the humanitarian-isation of human rights reporting, as well as of the human rights-isation of humanitarian discourse and practice. Looking at the predicament between denunciation and access, central to humanitarian work, we see how the pervasion of rights-speak has influenced that dilemma, and the way humanitarian actors navigate it. Third, taking inspiration from Raymond Williams’s keyword approach, this study then zeroes in on the term ‘protection’, having identified it as central to this convergence. A closer analysis of this term’s evolution, (contested) meanings and uses allows us to unlock understandings of this phenomenon. This thesis considers ‘Protection’ –ubiquitous in both discourses– as it partly constitutes, and furthers the convergence. This thesis studies the efforts to make its definition consensual and some of the consequences of the confusion around it. Finally, by analysing the compounded terms of ‘protection of civilians’ and ‘responsibility to protect’, it explores the ways in which ‘protection’ penetrated UN discourse, acting as a Trojan horse for the tensions created by the convergence of human rights and humanitarianism

Talking about marriage equality and reproductive rights advocacy’ together presents an interesting, and sometimes puzzling, assortment of challenges and opportunities. Both involve efforts to secure legal protections and social recognition that are fundamentally important to those who need them yet also deeply provocative to their opponents. For both, too, advocacy takes place on a shifting terrain shaped by competing views of sexuality, autonomy, equality, personhood, and more., Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, Vol. 29 No. 1 (2015): 2014 Symposium: Marriage Equality and Reproductive Rights: Lessons Learned and the Road Ahead.

O fato de as políticas de comércio, financiamento e investimento se tornarem prioridades para aqueles que estão comprometidos com promover o respeito e a defesa dos direitos econômicos e sociais tem a ver com a percepção crescente de que, na luta em defesa desses direitos, essas políticas não podem ser ignoradas ou abstraídas como se fossem um campo separado. O paradigma dos direitos humanos tal como moldado pelos eventos posteriores à Segunda Guerra Mundial, que se baseia na responsabilidade dos atores estatais, complementa-se com os aspectos econômicos da globalização como, por exemplo, a ascensão do comércio internacional e dos fluxos financeiros transnacionais, a desregulamentação, a privatização e a redução do papel do Estado, culminando com o desgaste da capacidade dos Estados de tomar as medidas ativas exigidas para respeitar, proteger e fazer cumprir os direitos humanos em suas jurisdições territoriais. Por outro lado, organismos internacionais como a Organização Mundial do Comércio, o Banco Mundial e o Fundo Monetário Internacional aumentaram sua influência sobre a capacidade dos Estados de implementar as obrigações relacionadas com os direitos humanos. Este artigo busca vários objetivos. Com base numa visão geral das tendências apresentadas pela interseção das políticas de comércio, investimento e financiamento com os direitos humanos, apresentaremos um rico panorama de estratégias e atividades para os defensores dos direitos humanos. Antes de formular algumas recomendações na última seção, examinaremos algumas histórias de êxito e tendências futuras, inclusive oportunidades e obstáculos. The emergence of trade, finance and investment policy as priorities for those engaged in promoting the respect and defense of economic and social rights has to do with the increasing realization that, in the struggle to promote those rights, such policies cannot be ignored or abstracted as a separate field. The human rights paradigm as shaped by post-World War II developments which relies on the responsibility of state actors is complemented by economic aspects of globalization, e.g. the rise of international trade and financial flows across borders, deregulation, privatization and the reduction of the role of the state, culminating in an eroding capacity of states to take active measures required to respect, protect and fulfill human rights in their territorial jurisdiction. On the other hand, international organizations such as the World Trade Organization, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have increased their influence on the capacity of states to implement human rights obligations This paper seeks to fulfill several aims. Based on an overview of trends posed by the intersection of trade, investment and financial policies and human rights, the rich landscape of strategies and activities for human rights advocates will be presented. Before formulating some recommendations in the last chapter, the success stories and future trends, including opportunities and obstacles will be looked at. El surgimiento de las políticas de comercio, finanzas e inversiones como prioridades para quienes se dedican a promover el respeto y la defensa de los derechos económicos y sociales está relacionado con el hecho de que cada vez es más evidente que en la lucha por promover esos derechos, dichas políticas no pueden pasarse por alto ni abstraerse como si pertenecieran a un área separada. El paradigma de los derechos humanos, según quedó conformado por los acontecimientos posteriores a la Segunda Guerra Mundial, que depende de la responsabilidad de los actores estatales, se complementa con aspectos económicos de la globalización; por ejemplo, el aumento del comercio internacional y de los flujos financieros transnacionales, la desregulación, las privatizaciones y la reducción de la función del Estado, que culminaron en el desgaste de la capacidad de los Estados de adoptar las medidas activas necesarias para respetar, proteger y cumplir los derechos humanos en su jurisdicción territorial. Por otra parte, las organizaciones internacionales como la Organización Mundial del Comercio, el Banco Mundial y el Fondo Monetario Internacional han aumentado su influencia sobre la capacidad de los Estados de implementar obligaciones de derechos humanos. Este artículo se propone varios objetivos. En base a una descripción general de las tendencias planteadas por la intersección de las políticas comerciales, financieras y de inversiones y los derechos humanos, se presentará el rico panorama de estrategias y tendencias para los defensores de los derechos humanos. Antes de formular algunas recomendaciones en el último capítulo, se expondrán algunas historias de éxitos y las futuras tendencias, incluyendo las oportunidades y obstáculos.

Since the end of the cold war and, in particular, the Al Qaeda attacks of 11 September 2001 in the United States, Western governments have in their rhetoric stressed democratization in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region as a key policy goal. 1 The EU, the US and other Western countries have developed and extended their democracy promotion activities in the region, in particular democracy assistance to civil society, independent media, the judiciary, parliament and political parties. 2 Such assistance has at times been complemented with public criticism of perceived non-democratic behaviour and political conditionalities, i.e. making democratic reform a precondition for granting favours such as trade deals and development assistance., peer-reviewed

Pas de résumé, Doctorat en droit, info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Straipsnis parašytas remiantis 2003 m. autoriaus gintu bakalauriniu darbu. Šiame straipsnyje siekiama analizuoti nevyriausybinių žmogaus teisių organizacijų ypatumus, daugiausiai dėmesio skiriama žmogaus teisių nevyriausybinių organizacijų pasiskirstymo pasauliniu mastu analizei, mėginama nustatyti jų veiklos ypatybes bei apžvelgti skirtumus tarp įvairiuose regionuose veikiančių nevyriausybinių organizacijų. Kitas svarbus uždavinys: analizuoti nevyriausybinių žmogaus teisių organizacijų padėtį Lietuvoje, jų veiklos ypatybes bei nustatyti jų vietą pasauliniame kontekste. Keliama hipotezė, jog: Lietuvos nevyriausybinės žmogaus teisių organizacijos pagal savo veiklos ypatybes priklauso globaliųjų Pietų regionui. Pursuing to review the characteristics human rights of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), this article aims to determine the state of NGOs among other organizations, analyzing the world wide distributions of human rights NGOs, and to review the state of human rights NGOs in Lithuania overlooks the peculiarities of activities of such organizations and establish their place in the world context. The article presents a hypothesis that Lithuanian human rights NGOs to the extent of their activities belongs to the global south region.

In late 2003, human rights organizations brought a case against the British government’s arms sales (including small arms sales) to Indonesia. They argued that these exports violated the UK export criteria, as there was a ‘patent’ risk that the weapons would be used for internal repression (Norton-Taylor and Agionby, 2003). This incident illustrates that much controversy still surrounds the issue of arms sales to countries where serious human rights violations take place, something that this chapter also shows. Previous editions of the Small Arms Survey tried to identify main exporters and importers of small arms,1 to examine the level of transparency in the small arms trade,2 and to explore the links between legal and illicit arms transfers. This chapter continues to follow developments in the small arms and light weapons trade and state transparency. However, it does so in a slightly different way than in previous years. For the first time, it contains extensive listings of both main importers and exporters, with their most important trading partners and principal categories of weapons traded. The section on main exporters also systematically compares data from different sources (customs data and national reports on exports of military goods). The comparison shows that we are still far from a clear and coherent picture of the authorized trade in small arms. This is an important reason for introducing a second novelty: the Small Arms Trade Transparency Barometer. The barometer assesses the transparency of the main exporting states on a 20-point scale. It will be a recurrent feature of the Small Arms Survey. In subsequent editions, it should thus be possible to assess to what extent individual states are becoming more or less transparent over time, and hence whether we are moving towards a clearer picture of the authorized trade. As noted in previous editions of the Small Arms Survey, a good understanding of the legal (or authorized) trade is crucial for understanding the illicit market., peer-reviewed

Accogliendo il significato sociologico di cittadinanza, intesa come il complesso delle situazioni che coinvolgono l'individuo in quanto parte di un aggregato sociale e volta a considerare in modo unitario la persona, (non quindi nella sua dimensione di consumatore, utente, risparmiatore, etc.) si e proposta una nuova elencazione dei diritti, che spazia dai diritti f ondamentali, ai diritti sociali, agli interessi. Di qui la classificazione di: diritti fondamentali, diritti dei consumatori, diritti degli utenti di servizi pubblici, diritti dei "soggetti economici", diritti dei contribuenti, diritti degli automobilisti, diritti dei turisti, e cosi via (Sciarretta, I diritti dei cittadini, Milano, 1992; AA. VV. La nuova cittadinanza, Roma, 1993). Cosi intesa, la cittadinanza non assume piu solo il significato di appartenenza dell'individuo ad uno Stato, ma coinvolge la sua posizione con riguardo all a sf era delle liberta e all a sua collocazione sociale. [excerpt], peer-reviewed

A glance at history shows that the progressive development of human rights has been considerably conditioned by the evolution of social relations, and the forms in which these relations were institutionalized. It was not in abstract that newly recognised human rights came to be defined, but in the context of the modern state and that of an industrial and technological civilization; in the context of the bitter experience of two World Wars and the social and political evolution after 1945. This evolution has been characterized by a process of decolonialisation, by a growing sense of solidarity among mankind, and by a widespread awareness of the delicate ecological balance of our one and only Earth which is limited in its natural resources. The remarkable thing about the evolution of human rights is that it appears to have followed in a given direction. In fact, we notice the widening of the concept of human rights which had originated in the eighteenth century. Throughout the whole development of human rights, a certain quality has come gradually in evidence, due to a progression in which continuity is much more marked than discontinuity. This can be seen in the conceptual evolution of the subject of human rights. In what follows, I intend to show that throughout the last two centuries, particularly since the beginning of this century, there has been a continuity in the progressive widening of the subject of human rights from the individual to a collectivity and now to mankind as a whole. As we shall see, this conceptual evolution has been the result of different historical currents during which the antecedent achievements in the field of human rights have been reinterpreted in the light of new ethical demands., N/A

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights made no reference to God purposely to enable Governments, embracing different political ideologies and representing peoples with a different religious background, to reach a common understanding of the dignity and rights of man.(i) Reaffirmation of "faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal dignity of men and women and of nations large and small"(2) seemed to have required no metaphysical or religious anchorage. It could be expressed more or less as a self-evident truth for which no further motivation was needed than that respect for human rights was an essential condition "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.", N/A