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PhD (Science with Disaster Risk Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus The impacts of oil pollution incidents on a pristine marine environment threaten the biodiversity of the affected ecosystem and exert pressure on the socio-economics of the concerned region. These pressures, nevertheless, offers an opportunity for advancing resilient development. An innovative approach that is prominently developing in the oil sector is promoting the Incident Management System (IMS), also known as Incident Command System (ICS). This system is expected to improve marine oil spill response readiness mainly. The “all-hazard” approach form of ICS for incident response has been adopted in South Africa. Concerns have, however, emerged on the value of the system on the overall incident and disaster risk management, which is beyond the response operations. Regrettably, the current literature on ICS conceptualisation and implementation is predominantly informed and aligned to emergency response. This form of conceptualisation does not sufficiently apprehend the root causes, drivers, opportunities and challenges surrounding the adoption of ICS within the principles of the disaster management continuum. The system's mechanistic and hierarchical decision-making benefits are the main point of contention between the ICS proponents and opponents. Decision making appears to be conceptualised on the premise of a highly bureaucratic temporary structure adopted during emergency response operations. Interference from politicians and highranking bureaucrats with limited consideration to efforts invested during the preparedness stages of incident management thrives. Subsequently, this limiting perspective has undermined commitment to the adoption and the potential benefits of ICS to a larger extent. Essentially, the inconstancies in embracing ICS may indicate a broader context of continuous relationship trait that affects decision-making than the literature reveal. Several conflicting theories supporting ICS were identified. While these theories hold some desirable aspects and features, not all these facets are relevant and rationale for all hazards in every context. Based on the identified gaps in the current knowledge, this study undertook an organizational theory approach to comprehend ICS implementation in the context of marine oil spills incidents. A conceptual model was created to investigate the processes needed to develop a comprehensive, sustainable Incident Management System (IMS) in South Africa. In this process, the organisational theory was applied for the analytical evaluation of the rationality behind the system's theoretical foundations and practical applications. Based on these theoretical paradigms, exploratorysequential mixed method research of data collection was adopted, whereby both qualitative and quantitative data were collected chronologically. Initially, themes were developed from the qualitative data, followed by a subsequent investigation of these identified themes through quantitative data collection. The qualitative phase allowed for a non-linear but purposive research path that embraced an understanding of respondents’ values, behaviours, assumptions and beliefs. These were subsequently triangulated with quantitative data to provide a perspective that informed the conceptual model's development. A total of 121 individuals and 32 organisations participated in either the qualitative or quantitative study phase. Five key questions addressed the key research problem through four research articles developed during this study. In article 1, the question intended to establish the oil spill risk management profile of South Africa whereby three elements that require attention were identified. Firstly, the existing legislative arrangements mandating the oil spill management function was found to be fragmented, highlighting a need for integrated policy reform. Secondly, stakeholders involved in ex-ante and expost activities have limited technical capacity in oil spills risk management, signifying the need for structured training and exercise inputs. Lastly, the complexity of the current financial arrangements creates a gap that undermines resilience, calling for the adoption of budgetary re-allocation and alternative forms of funding. This study was unique in its methodology and approach to oil spill risk management. Previous studies have explored scientific variables to be considered for preventing oil spills. While there has been a generic focus on marine legislation, studies focusing on institutional and governance principles for managing oil spill risk have been lacking, particularly in South Africa. Subsequently, article 2 pursued to understand the legal framework governing oil spill management in South Africa. A content analysis of international conventions and the national policy and legislative documents relating to marine oil spills was conducted. In this regard, three international conventions, two marine civil liability laws, seven environmental and conservation management laws for marine pollution, and two disaster risk management policies and legislative frameworks were analysed. The findings of this paper demonstrate that South African marine pollution management is on a reasonable development path. However, invariably, challenges in terms of enforcement capacity, complicated and ineffective provisions continue. This study thus called for an institutional and legislative reform that will embrace integrated management strategies, clearer provisions of legal powers, and strict enforcement of existing laws. Understanding the South African marine oil spill legal framework in Article 2 led to the need to investigate and identify practices that enhance a coordination process for an effective management of oil spill pollution, which was carried out in article 3 through the grounded theory approach. The empirical evidence included observations of meetings and oil spill exercises held to support the coordination process employed in instituting a National Incident Management System for the marine oil spill in South Africa. This was followed by 54 individual open questionnaires for data triangulation and validation. Analysis of developing an Incident Management System process revealed that when designing a novel long-term project which is reliant on a shared vision from multiple organisations, enhanced coordination and collaboration for successful implementation is dependent on the following practices: (i) political commitment, (ii) bridging knowledge gaps and (iii) sharing of resources. Subsequently, Article 4 focused on presenting a conceptual model for marine oil spills in South Africa. The article drew from the three previous articles and empirical data. In developing the proposed conceptual model, challenges aligned with reactive response efforts' traditional environmental disaster management efforts were considered. The model demonstrates an integrative coordination continuum with a stringent focus on coherent multi stakeholders’ incident management collaborations. The model is valuable because it focuses beyond the traditional emergency response tool but is fundamental in effecting adherence to reporting lines, performance standards and information integration. Additionally, the model reconciles oil spill risk minimisation policies to the inter and intra-organisational planning and preparedness processes. The model has been designed to mainstream the organisational views that perceive disaster management and offshorerelated activities as unfunded mandates, especially where response operation and sustainable rehabilitation programmes are concerned. In applying the Incident Command System and the organisation theory, this study provides numerous contributions to the literature. Initially, the thesis contributes to the literature of incident command system-risk management-marine oil spill management relationship. Literature that focuses on these three concepts concurrently is limited regardless of its dominance in general emergency and crisis response. The research study provides a perspective that mainstreams inter and intra-organisational planning, preparedness and response to marine pollution and oil spill risk. Research in oil spill risk management is predominantly considered within environmental sciences, yet this study was tackled within the disaster management lens within the South African context. The thesis thus contributes to environmental management and the ICS literature, focusing on the disaster management continuum. Furthermore, there are limited empirical informed studies that focus on the value of ICS theory for the pre-disaster, specifically the preparedness phase, hence, this thesis and precisely the reason for developing the proposed conceptual model. In sum, such a holistic approach to the Incident Management System further contribute to the preparedness needs for managing the overall risk of marine oil spills. Doctoral

Globally, effective emergency response to disease outbreaks is usually affected by weak coordination. However, coordination using an incident management system (IMS) in line with a One Health approach involving human, environment, and animal health with collaborations between government and non-governmental agencies result in improved response outcome for zoonotic diseases such as Lassa fever (LF). We provide an overview of the 2019 LF outbreak response in Nigeria using the IMS and One Health approach. The response was coordinated via ten Emergency Operation Centre (EOC) response pillars. Cardinal response activities included activation of EOC, development of an incident action plan, deployment of One Health rapid response teams to support affected states, mid-outbreak review and after-action review meetings. Between 1st January and 29th December 2019, of the 5057 people tested for LF, 833 were confirmed positive from 23 States, across 86 Local Government Areas. Of the 833 confirmed cases, 650 (78%) were from hotspot States of Edo (36%), Ondo (26%) and Ebonyi (16%). Those in the age-group 21–40 years (47%) were mostly affected, with a male to female ratio of 1:1. Twenty healthcare workers were affected. Two LF naive states Kebbi and Zamfara, reported confirmed cases for the first time during this period. The outbreak peaked earlier in the year compared to previous years, and the emergency phase of the outbreak was declared over by epidemiological week 17 based on low national threshold composite indicators over a period of six consecutive weeks. Multisectoral and multidisciplinary strategic One Health EOC coordination at all levels facilitated the swift containment of Nigeria's large LF outbreak in 2019. It is therefore imperative to embrace One Health approach embedded within the EOC to holistically address the increasing LF incidence in Nigeria.

The blacklegged tick population is increasing within the Realike region, and this has been associated with the emergence and increase of Lyme disease cases in the area. Zachary Smith, the Manager of the Safe Water and Rabies Prevention & Control, and Vector-Borne Disease team at the Realike Health Unit’s Environmental Health Department, has been notified by Public Health Ontario of a potential Lyme disease outbreak in the area. Lyme disease is a vector-borne disease caused by bites from blacklegged ticks, also known as deer ticks, that are infected with Borrelia burgdorferi bacteria. The disease was once mostly endemic to the United States, Europe, and parts of Asia. However, due to the uncertainty and negative impacts induced by climate change, the Realike region is now an endemic Lyme disease risk area. As per Ontario’s Emergency Management and Civil Protection Act, all municipalities should be prepared for emergencies such as disease outbreaks and, therefore should develop an emergency management program (Government of Ontario, 1990b). Further, the latest amendment of the Ontario Public Health Standards includes the addition of emergency management as one of the four foundational standards (MOHLTC, 2018a). This mandates that public health programs and services delivered by Ontario public health units incorporate all four of these foundational standards. The province’s public health standards state that emergency management plays a critical role in public health programming as it enables boards of health to ensure that they possess the capacity to respond to emerging and re-emerging threats within the community. Compliance with the standards also ensures that health units maintain adaptability and are resilient during times of high stress and in the presence of disruption. Currently, Ontario does not have any guidelines or emergency management plans for Lyme disease. Zachary must consider all elements of the problem and apply a systems-thinking approach to develop an efficient emergency preparedness plan for Lyme disease. This plan will provide a safe and healthy environment for the residents of the Realike region by ensuring that they are aware of the increased level of Lyme disease within the region.

Emergency health preparedness and response efforts are a necessity in order to safeguard the public against major events, such as influenza pandemics. Since posting warnings of the epidemic influenza in 1918, to the mass media communications available a century later, state, national and global public health agencies have developed sophisticated networks, tools, detection methods, and preparedness plans. These progressive measures guide health departments and clinical providers, track patient specimens and test reports, monitor the spread of disease, and evaluate the most threatening influenza strains by means of risk assessment, to be able to respond readily to a pandemic. Surge drills and staff training were key aspects for New York State preparedness and response to the 2009 influenza pandemic, and the re-evaluation of preparedness plans is recommended to ensure readiness to address the emergence and spread of a future novel virulent influenza strain.

The work of the technical department of the Ministry of Social Policy of the Sverd-lovsk region (hereinafter – the Ministry) was analyzed, on the basis of which it was decided to intro-duce an incident management system. The main requirements from the Ministry were identified, which were used to search for analogues, their comparison and analysis, and the OTRS system was selected. It was installed and configured on the basis of technical specifications, as well as somewhat improved. Была проанализирована работа технического отдела Министерства социальной политики Свердловской области (Далее – Министерство), по результатам которой было решено вводить систему управления инцидентами. Были определены основные требования от Министерства, по которым был осуществлен поиск аналогов, их сравнение и анализ, и выбрана система – OTRS. Она была установлена и настроена исходя из ТЗ, а также несколько улучшена.

Background: Response to the 2014–2015 Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in Sierra Leone overwhelmed the national capacity to contain it and necessitated a massive international response and strong coordination platform. Consequently, the Sierra Leone Government, with support of the international humanitarian community, established and implemented various models for national coordination of the outbreak. In this article we review the strengths and limitations of the EVD outbreak response coordination systems in Sierra Leone and propose recommendations for improving coordination of similar outbreaks in the future. Conclusions: There were two main frameworks used for the coordination of the outbreak; the Emergency Operation Center (EOC) and the National Ebola Response Center (NERC). We observed an improvement in outbreak coordination as the management mechanism evolved from the EOC to the NERC. Both coordination systems had their advantages and disadvantages; however the NERC coordination mechanism appeared to be more robust. We identified challenges, such as competition and duplication of efforts between the numerous coordination groups, slow resource mobilization, inadequate capacity of NERC/EOC staff for health coordination and an overtly centralized coordination and decision making system as the main coordination challenges during the outbreak. Recommendations: We recommend the establishment of emergency operation centers with simple incident management system-based coordination prior to outbreaks, strong government leadership, decentralization of coordination systems and functions to the epicenter of outbreaks, with clear demarcation of roles and responsibilities between different levels, regular training of key coordination leaders and better community participation as methods to improve coordination of future disease outbreaks.

Background Response to the 2014–2015 Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak in Sierra Leone overwhelmed the national capacity to contain it and necessitated a massive international response and strong coordination platform. Consequently, the Sierra Leone Government, with support of the international humanitarian community, established and implemented various models for national coordination of the outbreak. In this article, we review the strengths and limitations of the EVD outbreak response coordination systems in Sierra Leone and propose recommendations for improving coordination of similar outbreaks in the future. Conclusion There were two main frameworks used for the coordination of the outbreak; the Emergency Operation Center (EOC) and the National Ebola Response Center (NERC). We observed an improvement in outbreak coordination as the management mechanism evolved from the EOC to the NERC. Both coordination systems had their advantages and disadvantages; however, the NERC coordination mechanism appeared to be more robust. We identified challenges, such as competition and duplication of efforts between the numerous coordination groups, slow resource mobilization, inadequate capacity of NERC/EOC staff for health coordination, and an overtly centralized coordination and decision-making system as the main coordination challenges during the outbreak. Recommendations We recommend the establishment of EOCs with simple incident management system-based coordination prior to outbreaks, strong government leadership, decentralization of coordination systems, and functions to the epicenter of outbreaks, with clear demarcation of roles and responsibilities between different levels, regular training of key coordination leaders, and better community participation as methods to improve coordination of future disease outbreaks.

The paper analyses the real-time detection of incidents in road traffic. A general model is presented of an integral road traffic incident management system. The paper presents the major incident detection methods. The detection procedure on open highway sections has been dealt with in particular. Adequate mathematical model has been defined, as the base for the realisation of the estimators of the traffic flow condition variables. The proposed method is the Extended Kalman Filter. The final part of the paper deals with an example for the realisation of the Incident Management Decision Support System (IMDSS). KEY WORDS: intelligent transport system, incident management system, traffic model in the status space, theory of estimation, extended Kalman filter, automatic incident detection, decision support system

This research identifies the resource management systems currently deployed during emergencies, the level of satisfaction with these systems and what constitutes an effective Resource Management System (RMS) in an emergency context. The data for this study was gathered data using an online questionnaire. The questionnaire was based on a theoretical framework developed following an extensive literature review. The results and recommendations are based on data from 352 respondents. The results of this study revealed that 66.19% of respondents used a mix of both paper and computer based systems to manage their resources. With a system designed in house and a generic “off the shelf” resource management system being the most popular at 41.43% and 30.95% respectively. With regard to resource management systems, the top six characteristics valued by respondents were: reliability; ease of use; ease of access - on site; accuracy; ease of access - off site; and flexibility. Respondents who used a generic or bespoke resource management system were more than three times more satisfied with their system than respondents using a paper based approach and just under twice as satisfied as those using a system designed in house. Keywords Emergency Management; Resource Management System; Disaster Management; Incident Management System; Effective Resource Management.

The paper provides an overview of security problems in intelligent transport systems. The basic functional areas of intelligent transport systems are shown. Some main components of ITS directly related to security technology are described. In cases of major traffic or other security incidents it is very important to manage events dynamically in real time for a primary reason - in order to reduce death causalities. This paper presents an overview of current activities on the development of this functional area in the world. The review of some ITS security applications in the Republic of Croatia are given.

The paper presents an overview of Incident Management Systems developed for new generation tunnels on Croatian motorways. An integral approach of Incident management system development, its subsystems, methods of realization of incidence algorithms etc. is described. Methodology of scenario creation for certain incidence is described also. In case of multi-tunnel part of road, methodology of priority determining is suggested based on risk analysis. Finally, some examples on incidence scenarios and related algorithms are presented.

In modern society, every person is guaranteed the freedom of movement and accessibility of the desired destination. This means that a society in which people with disabilities will have the same rights as other members of the community should be promoted. In order to improve the conditions for the movement and accessibility for visually impaired persons in Croatia, mainly the traditional measures (lowering curbs, building ramps, elevators, lifting platforms, etc.) are applied, which try to remove architectural barriers that stand in the way of pedestrians to the destination. There is little use of advanced management measures and traffic management. This paper describes navigation as an integral part of pedestrian traffic management problems. Independent walking of blind persons in a familiar environment is possible only with the help of a white cane. In an unknown environment, things are much more complex. Further complications can occur due to sudden changes in goals and redefinition of paths. Using the services provided by intelligent transport systems, certain improvements are possible, such as finding a certain location in an unknown area, walking down the streets and travelling by public transport. That way, the disadvantages of and discrimination against visually impaired people are reduced. The paper also gives an overview of technologies used for navigation in developed countries. The problems of positioning and orientation, which are essential for navigation, are also described.

In cases of major traffic or other security incidents it is very important to manage events dynamically in real time for a primary reason - in order to reduce death causalities. Unique name for this system is a Incident management System. Such crises management, location specific, with adaptive characteristics, requires implementation of modern mobile telecom technologies such as Cell Broadcast system messaging. A technological overview of the system along with its applications and experience in real-life environment is given in the paper.