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Chile’s isolation and varied climates have driven the evolution of a unique biodiversity with a high degree of endemism. The Mediterranean-type biome of Central Chile is one of 35 global biodiversity hotspots and has been highlighted as one of Chile’s most endangered areas. It is threatened by anthropogenic land use change impacting the integrity of local biomes and associated species. This area holds the most extensive collections of the country with high endemicity regarding native bee species. Characterising habitat requirements of bees is a pressing priority to safeguard them and the ecosystem services they provide.We investigated broad-scale patterns of bee diversity using newly accessible expert-validated datasets comprising digitized specimen records from both Chilean and US collections and novel, expert-validated type specimen data for the bees of Chile. We used a generalised dissimilarity modelling (GDM) approach to explore both compositional and phylogenetic β-diversity patterns across latitudinal, altitudinal, climate and habitat gradients in well-sampled bee assemblages in Central Chile. Using the GDM measures of increasing compositional and environmental dissimilarity we categorised and compared the most important drivers of these patterns and used them to classify ‘wild bee ecoregions’ (WBE) representing unique assemblages.Turnover of bee assemblages was explained primarily by latitudinal variation (proxy for climate) along Chile. However, temperature variations, precipitation and the presence of bare soil also significantly explained the observed patterns. In comparison, we observed less turnover in phylogenetic biodiversity corresponding to spatial gradients. We were able to develop six de novo ecoregions (WBE) all with distinct taxa, endemic lineages, and representative species. The WBE represent distinct spatial classifications but have similarities to existing biogeographical classifications, ecosystems and bioclimatic zones.This approach establishes the baseline needed to prioritise bee species conservation efforts across this global biodiversity hotspot. We discuss the novelty of this classification considering previous biogeographical characterisations and its relevance for assessing conservation priorities for bee conservation. We argue that Chile’s WBE show areas requiring funding for bee species exploration and description, distribution mapping and strengthening of conservation policies.

Apples are one of the most important global crops that relies heavily on insect pollination, which has been shown to increase apple production and value. However, recent reports indicate that apple production has been declining in certain regions, including in Bhutan. One of the potential causes of declining production are pollination deficits driven by a low abundance and diversity of pollinators, a phenomenon that has received little attention in Bhutan to date. Here, we present the first study examining the diversity of flying insects in Bhutanese apple orchards in relation to apple quality. During the apple flowering season, 1,006 insects comprising 44 unique (morpho-)species from the orders Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera were recorded using a standardized method of passive and active trapping within nine different orchards in Thimphu, Paro, and Haa districts, in the western part of Bhutan. During the harvest season, 495 apples were collected from these nine orchards, and we measured five different parameters; weight, size, sugar concentration, seed number, and malformation score. The most dominant flower visitors across all orchards were honey bees (mostly Apis mellifera, followed by A. cerana and A. dorsata). Orchards with a higher abundance of flying insects (both managed and wild) had better apple quality (weight, size and sugar concentration). Contrary to reports from other regions of the world, flower visitor diversity did not correlate with the quality of the apples. This represents the first study reporting on apple pollination in Bhutan and highlights the importance of pollinators and reinforces the need to develop pollinator friendly practices to ensure sustainable apple production.

Classical Species Distribution Models are primarily based on climate, land use and other abiotic variables. Despite recent studies showing that biotic information can play an important role in shaping the distribution of species even at large scales, results are not always consistent among studies and the underlying factors that influence the importance of this biotic information to the models, are unclear. To address this knowledge gap, we evaluated how different factors affect the importance of biotic interactions in shaping species distributions, using fine-scale data from plant-pollinator and parasitic interactions in the Netherlands. We found that the models of wild bees improved, when their biotic interaction was included, and the model performance improved the most for parasitic bees. Taxonomic level, resolution and distribution range of the interacting species and degree of specialization of the modelled species all affected the importance of the biotic interactions to the models.

Aim: Projections of biodiversity scenarios often rely solely on climate change to inform species distribution shifts in the future. Land use projections are rarely used due to their unavailability and, when available, are often at coarse spatial and thematic resolutions, making them unsuitable to capture fine scale habitat suitability. This study aims to (a) show how coupled land use change (LUC) models of high thematic resolution (HTR) can be used in species distribution models (SDM), (b) compare the impacts of HTR and low thematic resolution (LTR) explanatory predictors on biodiversity scenarios and (c) assess the impact of species' present area of occupancy on the effect of thematic resolution in SDMs. Location: Belgium. Taxon: Bumblebees (Bombus). Methods: We compared species distribution models with 17 land use predictors (HTR) against models with 5 land use predictors (LTR). We modelled the distribution of 17 bumblebee species in Belgium projected until 2035. We examined how model performance, variable importance and projections of distribution change differed depending on the thematic resolution of the land use predictors. Results: Overall, HTR models performed better than LTR models. LTR models predicted greater extent per species. HTR projected a greater percentage of range gains, and both models projected similar losses of suitable habitat. However, the percentage loss and connectivity of suitable habitats varied differently for HTR and LTR models along a gradient of rare to common species. The HTR models projected greater loss of suitable areas for rare species and less loss for common species compared to LTR models. Main conclusions: These results illustrate the importance of using ecologically relevant explanatory variables in SDMs, particularly for rare and localized species with specific habitat requirements. The results also indicate the need for large-scale LUC projections to improve future biodiversity scenarios under climate change and to improve the ability of conservationists and policymakers to use SDM projections., SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Commercial apple production relies on managed honey bees for pollination, and on intensive management for pest control. Previous studies revealed the detrimental effects of these factors on wild bee diversity in agroecosystems, and the pollination services they provide. However, the extent to which honey bee dominance and management interact under field-realistic conditions to shape wild communities has never been investigated. We measured the species richness and functional and phylogenetic diversity of wild bees associated with apple blossoms, in 46 organic and non-organic orchards, and along a climatic gradient across Western Europe and Morocco. Our results consistently show a strong and negative association between honey bee dominance and all diversity indices, regardless of local practices and surrounding landscape cover. Collectively, we show that wild bee diversity decreases with increasing honey bee density, with alternative management practices (i.e., organic) having no significant influence on wild bee communities in commercial apple orchards.

Commercial apple production relies on managed honey bees (Apis mellifera) for pollination, and on intensive management for pest control. Previous studies have highlighted the potentially detrimental effects of intensive crop management on wild bee diversity in agroecosystems, potentially jeopardizing the pollination services they provide. However, the extent to which honey bee dominance and crop management interact under field-realistic conditions and drive the structure of wild bee assemblages has not been investigated so far. In this study, we measured species richness, as well as the functional and phylogenetic diversity of wild bee assemblages in 36 paired organic and non-organic apple orchards during their flowering season and along a geographic gradient across western Europe. Our results show a strong significant and negative association between honey bee dominance and all wild bee diversity metrics, regardless of local management. Semi-natural habitats had a significant and positive effect on functional diversity, while urbanization and crop cover around the orchards showed no effect on all measured diversity metrics. A greater number of species exhibited less common, or frequent, combinations of functional traits at sites with high honey bee dominance, especially larger bee species with longer tongues. Collectively, we show that wild bee diversity decreases with increasing honey bee dominance, and that this negative association is not buffered by alternative (i.e., organic) management practices in commercial apple orchards. Although organic farming can bring about biodiversity benefits, our study demonstrates that, in the context of commercial apple production, other measures are needed to enhance and harness biodiversity for sustainable and profitable crop production. In particular, a lowered reliance on honey bees and a redesign of orchards through configurational crop heterogeneity and/or the restoration of in-field semi‐natural elements are required beyond agricultural input substitution.

info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Bumblebees are ubiquitous, cold-adapted eusocial bees found worldwide from subarctic to tropical regions of the world. They are key pollinators in most temperate and boreal ecosystems, and both wild and managed populations are significant contributors to agricultural pollination services. Despite their broad ecological niche at the genus level, bumblebee species are threatened by climate change, particularly by rising average temperatures, intensifying seasonality and the increasing frequency of extreme weather events. While some temperature extremes may be offset at the individual or colony level through temperature regulation, most bumblebees are expected to exhibit specific plastic responses, selection in various key traits, and/or range contractions under even the mildest climate change. In this review, we provide an in-depth and up-to-date review on the various ways by which bumblebees overcome the threats associated with current and future global change. We use examples relevant to the fields of bumblebee physiology, morphology, behaviour, phenology, and dispersal to illustrate and discuss the contours of this new theoretical framework. Furthermore, we speculate on the extent to which adaptive responses to climate change may be influenced by bumblebees’ capacity to disperse and track suitable climate conditions. Closing the knowledge gap and improving our understanding of bumblebees’ adaptability or avoidance behaviour to different climatic circumstances will be necessary to improve current species climate response models. These models are essential to make correct predictions of species vulnerability in the face of future climate change and human-induced environmental changes to unfold appropriate future conservation strategies., SCOPUS: re.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Urbanisation is often put forward as an important driver of biodiversity loss, including for pollinators such as wild bees. However, recent evidence shows that the mosaics of urban green spaces, and in particular certain categories of informal urban green spaces (IGS), can play an important role to help native wild bees thrive in cities.Here, we describe the results of five years of citizen science and standardised field surveys of wild bees conducted at the Friche Josaphat, a 24-ha urban wasteland in the Brussels-Capital Region (Belgium). These field surveys were initiated following the planned restructuring and partial destruction of this site by the regional authorities.We recorded a total of 2,507 specimens belonging to 127 species of wild bees, i.e. 60.5% of the 210 species recorded regionally, including nine that are threatened with extinction at national or European scales. The Friche Josaphat encompasses a significant share of the functional and phylogenetic diversity of wild bees known from the Brussels-Capital Region and is one of the most species-rich localities known to date for wild bees in Belgium.Collectively, our results highlight the strong complementarity of citizen science and academic approaches in biodiversity surveys, and they reaffirm that wastelands are essential components of urban biodiversity. Our study stresses the need to provide biodiverse IGS with a formal status within the mosaic of urban green spaces, but also to acknowledge and safeguard their natural capital and the multiple ecosystem services they provide.

While shifts to high-intensity land cover have caused overwhelming biodiversity loss, it remains unclear how important natural land cover is to the occurrence, and thus the conservation, of different species groups. We used over 4 million plant species’ observations to evaluate the conservation importance of natural land cover by its association with the occurrence probability of 1 122 native and 403 exotic plant species at 1 km resolution by species distribution models. We found that 74.9% of native species, 83.9% of the threatened species and 77.1% rare species preferred landscapes with over 50% natural land cover, while these landscapes only accounted for 15.6% of all grids. Most species preferred natural areas with a mixture of forest and open areas rather than areas with completely open or forested nature. Compared to native species, exotic species preferred areas with lower natural land cover and the cover of natural open area, but they both preferred extremely high and low cover of natural forest area. Threatened and rare species preferred higher natural land cover, either cover of natural forest area or cover of natural open area than not threatened and common species, but rare species were also more likely to occur in landscapes with 0–25% cover of natural open area. Although more natural land cover in a landscape will not automatically result in more native species, because there is often a non-linear increase in species occurrence probability when going from 0% to 100% natural land cover, for conserving purposes, over 80% natural land cover should be kept in landscapes for conserving threatened and very rare species, and 60% natural land cover is the best for conserving common native species. Our results stress the importance of natural areas for plant species’ conservation. It also informs improvements to species conservation by increasing habitat diversity.

Aim: Among the numerous anthropogenic pressures threatening biodiversity, habitat destruction and climate change are pointed to as dominant. In response, a number of mitigation strategies are elaborated to save endangered living organisms. However, the taxonomic level and geographical extent at which conservation strategies should be designed and implemented remain generally unclear. Here, we aim to assess and discuss the importance to apply conservation strategies at an appropriate taxonomic scale. For this purpose, we focus our analyses on bumblebees (genus Bombus), a group of critically important and endangered pollinators. Location: West-Palaearctic. Methods: We use a species distribution modelling approach to investigate and compare climatic and habitat-related variables associated with the distribution of West-Palaearctic bumblebees. Our analyses are based on a data set gathering more than 125,000 unique observation points for 68 species. Results: We highlight species-specific associations with climatic and land cover variables, depicting the strong relevance of taxon-specific mitigation strategies for the conservation of those key pollinators. We also identify that the occurrence probability of localized and widespread species is mostly predicted by specific land cover characteristics and climatic conditions, respectively. Finally, we report the general absence of phylogenetic signal associated with the relative importance of each environmental variable in species distribution models, underlining the difficulty to predict species-specific environmental requirements based on evolutionary relationships. Main conclusions: In the light of these results, we conclude that climate change and landscape destruction are not expected to drive the fate of all bumblebee species in a same direction, even for phylogenetically close lineages. We argue in favour of geographically and taxonomically adapted conservation strategies and discuss the limitations of untargeted action plans for species with different climatic/habitat requirements., SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Recent studies have reported on dramatic cases of aerial insect population declines by focusing on the measure of the total biomass of caught insects. However, there is currently no consensus about how biomass patterns among sites and habitats might consistently capture the subtleties of changes in aerial insect community structure. Here, we investigated the relationship between the total biomass of wild bees collected using pan traps in urban, agricultural, and semi-natural habitats on one hand, and a spectrum of biodiversity metrics on the other hand, particularly species richness (SR), alpha diversity, functional diversity (FD) and three different forms of phylogenetic diversity (PD). Our results indicate that although biomass is significantly and highly correlated with the abundance of wild bees, it is generally significantly but only moderately and non-linearly correlated to the various facets of wild bee diversity among habitats. By contrast, we also found that all three measures of PD used are consistent across habitats, suggesting that a taxonomic hierarchy based on Linnaean classification could be used as a proxy for the measurement of PD in wild bees, particularly in other well-studied areas such as Western Europe where a multi-gene molecular phylogeny is unavailable as yet. Collectively, our results illustrate the clear limitations of biodiversity monitoring through measures of trapped insects biomass. We advocate for more robust measures of biodiversity trends in wild bees, requiring both standardized surveys, and the identification of caught specimens down to the species level to capture the subtleties of species, traits-based and phylogeny-based community changes across habitats or time. Scaling out this approach is an essential prerequisite for more global conservation planning tailored to the ecological requirements of the targeted insect species.

White-tailed bumblebee species, Bombus cryptarum, B. lucorum, B. magnus and B. terrestris are known to be very similar in their morphological characters across the majority of their ranges. This hampers assessment of their status and trends because reliable identification is difficult. In this study, we use a combination of characters and methods to assess how ecologists and citizen scientists can reliably and quickly separate these four species occurring in the Netherlands. Bumblebees (queens, workers and males) were sampled from 10 locations across the Netherlands and specimens were identified based on COI sequence data. Next, the same specimens where scored for morphological traits. We show that a combination of easy to recognise characteristics can separate some specimens of the species depending on caste and sex. Bombus magnus males and queens and B. lucorum males were most reliably separated from the other species using morphological characters. Workers of all four species cannot be separated completely using morphological characters alone. This is the first time standard morphological characters and ecological data has been used to study the differences between the white-tailed bumblebees in the Netherlands. Based on our findings we need to conclude that the status of these bumblebee species in the Netherlands is uncertain due to possible misidentifications in the past and present. People who wish to work with these species should be careful in species identification based on morphology.

Agricultural intensification and loss of semi-natural grassland have contributed to biodiversity decline, including pollinator species, in pastures around the world. To reverse the decline, agri-environmental schemes have been implemented, varying widely in effectiveness. In addition, many countries, including the Netherlands, have established nature reserves in which semi-natural grasslands are restored and are often managed for specific groups of species, e.g. meadow birds or plants. The effects of such measures on insect biodiversity are not well known but recent reports on the dramatic decline of insect biomass in nature reserves have put even more attention to the impact of land use and management on biodiversity. This study compares pollinator abundance and species richness in three common semi-natural grassland management types in the Netherlands: (1) hay meadows, (2) herb-rich grasslands and (3) meadow bird grasslands. Pollinator abundance and species richness were assessed in eleven study areas, each with all three management types present. Standardized transects, insect sampling within a standard 20 min time frame and plot-based flower surveys were used in spring and summer to assess the relationships between management regime, floral abundance and diversity and pollinator communities. The results show that meadow bird grasslands have lower pollinator abundance and diversity and a less unique pollinator assemblage than both other types. Moreover, flower abundance has a positive effect on pollinator abundance and flower diversity has a positive effect on pollinator species richness. These results indicate that meadow-bird grasslands are a comparatively unfavourable habitat for bees, hoverflies and butterflies, which may be explained by a lack of flowers as well as unsuitable mowing practices. Measures benefitting both insectivorous birds and flower-visiting insects, such as rotational mowing, could remediate this imbalance. (C) 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH on behalf of Gesellschaft fur Okologie.

Species can respond differently when facing environmental changes, such as by shifting their geographical ranges or through plastic or adaptive modifications to new environmental conditions. Phenotypic modifications related to environmental factors have been mainly explored along latitudinal gradients, but they are relatively understudied through time despite their importance for key ecological interactions. Here we hypothesize that the average bumblebee queen body size has changed in Belgium during the last century. Based on historical and contemporary databases, we first tested if queen body sizes changed during the last century at the intraspecific level among four common bumblebee species and if it could be linked to global warming and/or habitat fragmentation as well as by the replacement by individuals from new populations. Then, we assessed body size changes at the community level, among 22 species, taking into account species population trends (i.e. increasing, stable or decreasing relative abundance). Our results show that the average queen body size of all four bumblebee species increased over the last century. This size increase was significantly correlated to global warming and habitat fragmentation, but not explained by changes in the population genetic structure (i.e. colonization). At the community level, species with stable or increasing relative abundance tend to be larger than declining species. Contrary to theoretical expectations from Bergmann's rule (i.e. increasing body size in colder climates), temperature does not seem to be the main driver of bumblebee body size during the last century as we observed the opposite body size trend. However, agricultural intensification and habitat fragmentation could be alternative mechanisms that shape body size clines. This study stresses the importance of considering alternative global change factors when assessing body size change., SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

In a warming climate, species are expected to shift their geographical ranges to higher elevations and latitudes, and if interacting species shift at different rates, networks may be disrupted. To quantify the effects of ongoing climate change, repeating historical biodiversity surveys is necessary. In this study, we compare the distribution of a plant–pollinator community between two surveys 115 years apart (1889 and 2005–06), reporting distribution patterns and changes observed for bumblebee species and bumblebee-visited plants in the Gavarnie-Gèdre commune in the Pyrenees, located in southwest Europe at the French–Spanish border. The region has warmed significantly over this period, alongside shifts in agricultural land use and forest. The composition of the bumblebee community shows relative stability, but we observed clear shifts to higher elevations for bumblebees (averaging 129 m) and plants (229 m) and provide preliminary evidence that some bumblebee species shift with the plants they visit. We also observe that some species have been able to occupy the same climate range in both periods by shifting elevation range. The results suggest the need for long-term monitoring to determine the role and impact of the different drivers of global change, especially in montane habitats where the impacts of climate changes are anticipated to be more extreme.

biodiversity loss, dynamic, future, land use change scenarios, pollinators, projections, species distribution models (SDMs), wild bees Bumblebees in Europe have been in steady decline since the 1900s. This decline is expected to continue with climate change as the main driver. However, at the local scale, land use and land cover (LULC) change strongly affects the occurrence of bumblebees. At present, LULC change is rarely included in models of future distribu- tions of species. This study ’ s objective is to compare the roles of dynamic LULC change and climate change on the projected distribution patterns of 48 European bumblebee species for three change scenarios until 2100 at the scales of Europe, and Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg (BENELUX). We compared three types of models: (1) only climate covariates, (2) climate and static LULC covariates and (3) climate and dynamic LULC covariates. The climate and LULC change scenarios used in the models include, extreme growth applied strategy (GRAS), business as might be usual and sustainable European development goals. We analysed model performance, range gain/loss and the shift in range limits for all bumblebees. Over- all, model performance improved with the introduction of LULC covariates. Dynamic models projected less range loss and gain than climate-only projections, and greater range loss and gain than static models. Overall, there is considerable variation in species responses and effects were most pronounced at the BENELUX scale. The majority of species were predicted to lose considerable range, particularly under the extreme growth scenario (GRAS; overall mean: 64% 34). Model simulations pro- ject a number of local extinctions and considerable range loss at the BENELUX scale (overall mean: 56% 39). Therefore, we recommend species-specific modelling to understand how LULC and climate interact in future modelling. The efficacy of dynamic LULC change should improve with higher thematic and spatial resolution. Nevertheless, current broad scale representations of change in major land use classes impact modelled future distribution patterns.

Aim: Biodiversity is rapidly disappearing at local and global scales also affecting the functional diversity of ecosystems. We aimed to assess whether functional diversity was correlated with species diversity and whether both were affected by similar land use and vegetation structure drivers. Better understanding of these relationships will allow us to improve our predictions regarding the effects of future changes in land use on ecosystem functions and services. Location: The Netherlands. Methods: We compiled a dataset of c. 3 million observations of 66 out of 106 known Dutch butterfly species collected across 6,075 sampling locations during a period of 7 years, together with very high-resolution maps of land use and countrywide vegetation structure data. Using a mixed-effects modelling framework, we investigated the relationship between functional and species diversity and their main land use and vegetation structure drivers. Results: We found that high species diversity does not translate into high functional diversity, as shown by their different spatial distribution patterns in the landscape. Functional and species diversity are mainly driven by different sets of structural and land use parameters (especially average vegetation height, amount of vegetation between 0.5 and 2 m, natural grassland, sandy soils vegetation, marsh vegetation and urban areas). We showed that it is a combination of both vegetation structural characteristics and land use variables that defines functional and species diversity. Main conclusions: Functional diversity and species diversity of butterflies are not consistently correlated and must therefore be treated separately. High functional diversity levels occurred even in areas with low species diversity. Thus, conservation actions may differ depending on whether the focus is on conservation of high functional diversity or high species diversity. A more integrative analysis of biodiversity at both species and trait levels is needed to infer the full effects of environmental change on ecosystem functioning.

Species distribution models (SDM) are increasingly used to understand the factors that regulate variation in biodiversity patterns and to help plan conservation strategies. However, these models are rarely validated with independently collected data and it is unclear whether SDM performance is maintained across distinct habitats and for species with different functional traits. Highly mobile species, such as bees, can be particularly challenging to model. Here, we use independent sets of occurrence data collected systematically in several agricultural habitats to test how the predictive performance of SDMs for wild bee species depends on species traits, habitat type, and sampling technique. We used a species distribution modeling approach parametrized for the Netherlands, with presence records from 1990 to 2010 for 193 Dutch wild bees. For each species, we built a Maxent model based on 13 climate and landscape variables. We tested the predictive performance of the SDMs with independent datasets collected from orchards and arable fields across the Netherlands from 2010 to 2013, using transect surveys or pan traps. Model predictive performance depended on species traits and habitat type. Occurrence of bee species specialized in habitat and diet was better predicted than generalist bees. Predictions of habitat suitability were also more precise for habitats that are temporally more stable (orchards) than for habitats that suffer regular alterations (arable), particularly for small, solitary bees. As a conservation tool, SDMs are best suited to modeling rarer, specialist species than more generalist and will work best in long-term stable habitats. The variability of complex, short-term habitats is difficult to capture in such models and historical land use generally has low thematic resolution. To improve SDMs' usefulness, models require explanatory variables and collection data that include detailed landscape characteristics, for example, variability of crops and flower availability. Additionally, testing SDMs with field surveys should involve multiple collection techniques., info:eu-repo/semantics/published