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Background Population size and densities are key parameters in both fundamental and applied ecology, as they affect population resilience to density-dependent processes, habitat changes and stochastic events. Efficient management measures or species conservation programs thus require accurate estimates of local population densities across time and space, especially for continuously distributed species. For social species living in groups, population density depends on different components, namely the number of groups and the group size, for which relative variations in space may originate from different environmental factors. Whether resulting spatial variations in density are mostly triggered by one component or the other remains poorly known. Here, we aimed at determining the magnitude of the spatial variation in population densities of a social, group-living species, i.e. the European badger Meles meles, in 13 different sites of around 50 km2 across France, to decipher whether sett density, group size or proportion of occupied sett variation is the main factor explaining density variation. Besides the intrinsic factors of density variation, we also assessed whether habitat characteristics such as habitat fragmentation, urbanisation, and resource availability, drove both the spatial variation of density components and local population densities. Results We proposed a new standardised approach combining use of multiple methods, namely distance sampling for estimating the density of occupied sett clusters, i.e. group density, and camera and hair trapping for genetic identification to determine the mean social group size. The density of adult badgers was on average 3.8 per km2 (range 1.7–7.9 per km2) and was positively correlated with the density of sett clusters. The density of adult badgers per site was less related to the social group size or to the proportion of occupied sett clusters. Landscape fragmentation also explained the spatial variation of adult badger density, with highly fragmented landscapes supporting lower adult densities. Density components were linked differently to environmental variables. Conclusions These results underline the need to break down population density estimates into several components in group-living species to better understand the pattern of temporal and spatial variation in population density, as different components may vary due to different ecological factors.

Intraspecific variations in mating systems have been reported in numerous species, especially when they live in varying ecological contexts. This leads to variability between populations with regard to the proportion of females engaging in multiple male mating, which depends on the number of males available. For hunted ungulate species, hunting is known to influence population structure, especially when males are preferentially targeted for trophy hunting. Here, we investigated how variations in hunting pressure and the yearly proportion of heavy males removed have impacted multiple paternity rates in five wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) populations located in similar ecological contexts. We found high rates of multiple paternity in all studied populations, confirming the recently reported promiscuous mating system of wild boar. However, variations in hunting pressure and removal of heavy males did not significantly influence multiple paternity rates, contrary to our expectation. Nonetheless, a slight tendency for a decreasing multiple paternity rate with increasing hunting pressure and for increasing multiple paternity rate with increasing removal of heavy males from the population was detected. Based on these results, we discuss an alternative hypothesis on the ecological processes sustaining the influence of hunting regimes on the mating system. Overall, hunting pressure and management rules might be sufficient to disrupt the mating system in any of the populations, so it is important to continue the sampling of wild boar populations at the European scale, especially in populations with little hunting pressure.

Population viability and metapopulation dynamics are strongly affected by gene flow. Identifying ecological correlates of genetic structure and gene flow in wild populations is therefore a major issue both in evolutionary ecology and species management. Studying the genetic structure of populations also enables identification of the spatial scale at which most gene flow occurs, hence the scale of the functional connectivity, which is of paramount importance for species ecology. In this study, we examined the genetic structure of a social, continuously distributed mammal, the European badger (Meles meles), both at large spatial scales (among populations) and fine (within populations) spatial scales. The study was carried out in 11 sites across France utilizing a noninvasive hair trapping protocol at 206 monitored setts. We identified 264 badgers genotyped at 24 microsatellite DNA loci. At the large scale, we observed high and significant genetic differentiation among populations (global Fst = 0.139; range of pairwise Fst [0.046–0.231]) that was not related to the geographic distance among sites, suggesting few large-scale dispersal events. Within populations, we detected a threshold value below which badgers were genetically close (< 400 m), highlighting that sociality is the major structuring process within badger populations at the fine scale.

Aim Habitat quality and heterogeneity directly influence the distribution and abundance of organisms at different spatial scales. Determining the main environmental factors driving the variation in species abundance is crucial to understand the underlying ecological processes, and this is especially important for widely distributed species living in contrasting environments. However, the responses to environmental variation are usually described at relatively small spatial scales. Here, we studied the variation in abundance of a widely distributed mustelid, the European badger (Meles meles), across France. Location The whole metropolitan France. Methods We used (a) direct detections of 9,439 dead and living badgers, from 2006 to 2009, to estimate badger relative abundance in 703 small agricultural regions of metropolitan France and (b) a Bayesian modeling approach to identify the main environmental determinants influencing badger abundance. Results Despite a continuous distribution of badger in France, we found large variation in badger abundance between regions, explained by environmental factors. Among a set of 13 environmental variables, we demonstrated that badger abundance in lowlands (, We used direct detections of 9,439 badgers Meles meles, to estimate badger relative abundances in 703 small agricultural regions of metropolitan France and a Bayesian modeling approach to identify the main environmental determinants influencing badger abundances. Despite a continuous distribution of badger in this country, we demonstrated that badger abundances in lowlands were mostly driven by biotic factors such as potential food resources and forest fragmentation, while in mountainous areas, abiotic factors drove the variations in badger relative abundance. These results underline the importance of mapping the abundance of wildlife species based on environmental suitability and highlight the complexity of drivers influencing species abundance at large spatial scale.

Understanding how some species may be able to evolve quickly enough to deal with anthropogenic pressure is of prime interest in evolutionary biology, conservation, and management. Wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) populations keep growing all over Europe despite increasing hunting pressure. In wild boar populations subject to male-selective harvesting, the initially described polygynous mating system may switch to a promiscuous/polyandrous one. Such a change in the mating system, where potentially more males sire a litter at one reproductive event, may be associated with the retention of high genetic diversity and an increase of litter size. We tested these hypotheses by estimating the number of sires per litter based on a six-year long monitoring of a wild boar population subject to particularly high harvesting pressure. Our results show a high and stable genetic diversity and high rates of multiple paternity compared to other populations, thus depicting a promiscuous/polyandrous mating system in this population. We also show that litter size is positively linked to the number of sires, suggesting that multiple paternity increases fecundity. We finally discuss that multiple paternity may be one of the factors allowing rapid evolution of this population by maintaining both genetic and phenotypic diversity.

During pregnancy, littermates compete to extract maternal resources from the placenta. Unequal extraction of resources leads to developmental differences among offspring and thus within-litter variation in offspring mass. Because competition among littermates can be stronger among half-sibs, multiple paternity may represent an adaptive strategy allowing females to increase within-litter phenotypic variation among offspring when facing variable environments. Wild boar (Sus scrofa) females produce large litters with diversified offspring in terms of body mass. Additionally, multiple paternities within a litter have been observed in this promiscuous species. One can hypothesize that multiple paternity represents the mechanism by which females increase within-litter phenotypic variation. Combining long-term monitoring data with paternity analyses in a wild boar population, we tested whether the increase in the number of fathers within a litter explained the increase in within-litter variation in offspring mass observed in large litters. We showed that heavy females mated earlier during the rut, produced larger litters with a higher number of fathers and more variable fetus mass than lighter females. Within-litter variation of offspring mass increased with gestation stage and litter size, suggesting differential allocation of maternal resource among offspring “in utero.” However, we found only a weak paternal effect on offspring mass and no direct effect of the number of fathers on the within-litter variation in offspring mass. These results indicate that differential maternal allocation to offspring during pregnancy is unlikely related to paternal identity in this species. This is a pre-copyedited, author-produced version of an article accepted for publication in Behavioral Ecology following peer review. The version of record is available online at: https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/ary056

Graphical abstract, Highlights • Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalences in 112 European wildcats, 20 domestic cats and 47 hybrids are reported. • The seroprevalence (overall 65.2%) did not differ with the type of cat. • High farm densities and mild winters are associated with the highest seroprevalence., Toxoplasmosis is a major zoonosis, and its prevention requires multiple approaches due to the complex life-cycle of its causative agent, Toxoplasma gondii. Environmental contamination by oocysts is a key factor in the transmission of T. gondii to both humans and meat-producing animals; however, its spatial and temporal variations are poorly understood. We analysed the distribution of T. gondii seropositivity in a sample of 210 cats, including the European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris), the domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) and their hybrids that were collected in Central and Eastern France between 1996 and 2006. We searched for spatial variability among communes and temporal variations among years to relate this variability to landscape and meteorological conditions, which can affect the population dynamics of rodent hosts and the survival of oocysts. The overall seroprevalence was 65.2% (95% CI: 58.6–71.4). As expected, adults were more often infected than young individuals, while the occurrence of infection was not related to cat genotypes. Seroprevalence correlated significantly with farm density and the North-Atlantic Oscillation index, which describes temporal variations of meteorological conditions at the continental scale. The highest seroprevalence values were obtained in areas with high farm densities and during years with cool and moist winters. These results suggest that both farming areas and years with cool and wet winters are associated with increased T. gondii seroprevalence in cats. As cat infection determines the environmental contamination by oocysts, climate and landscape characteristics should be taken into account to improve the risk analysis and prevention of T. gondii.

Linking temporal variations of genetic diversity, including allelic richness and heterozygosity, and spatio-temporal fluctuations in population abundance has emerged as an important tool for understanding demographic and evolutionary processes in natural populations. This so-called genetic monitoring was conducted across 12 consecutive years (1996-2007) at three sites for the feral cat, introduced onto the Kerguelen archipelago fifty years ago. Temporal changes in allelic richness and heterozygosity at 18 microsatellite DNA loci were compared with temporal changes in the adult population abundance index, obtained by typical demographic monitoring. No association was found at the island spatial scale, but we observed an association between genetic diversity and adult population indices from year to year within each study site. More particularly, the magnitude of successive increases or decreases in the adult population abundance index appeared to be the major factor linking the trajectories of genetic diversity and adult population abundance indices. Natal dispersal and/or local recruitment, both facilitated by high juvenile survival when the adult population size is small, is proposed as the major demographic processes contributing to such an observed pattern. Finally, we suggested avoiding the use of the harmonic mean as an estimator of long-term population size to study the relationships between demographic fluctuations and heterozygosity in populations characterized by strong multiannual density fluctuations.

Given the problem of hybridization with domestic cats, there is a growing need to identify populations of the European wildcat Felis silvestris silvestris in order to protect the genetic integrity of this subspecies. In this paper, we use known locations of observations of wildcats or recovered carcasses to reassess the distribution of the wildcat in France and, in cases where carcasses were collected, we use both phenotypic and molecular genetic analyses to distinguish wildcats from hybrids with domestic cats. Spatially explicit multivariate analysis of wildcat' genotypes was then performed to define genetic units. Our study confirms the presence of wildcats in a large area of c. 155 000 km2, suggestive of a range of expansion, and divided into two clearly distinct and unconnected areas – the Pyrenees and the north-eastern part of France. However, European wildcat populations may be decreasing in the French Pyrenees, whereas the north-eastern part represents the main area (MA) of wildcat presence. This extension does not appear to be primarily due to hybrids, as both wildcats and hybrids were located throughout the MA. In addition, we found that genetic diversity of wildcats in the MA is remarkably high, suggesting that French populations are not threatened by a lack of genetic diversity. Furthermore, wildcats of the MA are structured into two genetically distinct populations that are contiguous and probably extend into Germany to form the largest area of wildcat presence in Europe and an area of major interest for their conservation. Our study calls for localized examination of the feasibility and usefulness of wildlife corridors to enhance connectivity between the different populations, thereby allowing sufficient levels of immigration and gene flow within the regional meta-population to ensure the long-term viability of these populations.

We investigate the genetic relationships between purported island species of Pteropus fruit bat (Megachiroptera) from the western Indian Ocean islands using mitochondrial DNA sequencing in order to infer the pattern of colonisation of this biogeographic region. Most significantly, our genetic data questions the current taxonomic assignment based on morphology of many of the island species and subspecies, suggesting instead that many of the western Indian Ocean islands harbour 'races' of P. giganteus from mainland India. Our results strongly argue against a single colonisation event from mainland Asia. Evidence is presented for three colonisation events; the first to the western-most extremity of their range (Comoros and Pemba Island), the second to Rodrigues Island; and a third giving rise to the remaining extant island taxa, the latter two events occurring relatively recently and rapidly.

We investigate the genetic profile of putative European Wildcats in north-eastern France, possessing the wildcat phenotype, but sampled in an area where they are sympatric with free-roaming domestic cats and, thus, are exposed to potential hybridisation. From a sample of 209 cats, the programme STRUCTURE clearly identified two distinct genetic clusters that corresponded to European Wildcats and domestic cats. The cats from these two clusters were clearly differentiated from each other (F ST = 0.16). However, the genotypes of some individual cats were split between the two clusters, indicative of genetic admixture. Our analysis demonstrates that a genetically distinct population of cats that possess the European Wildcat phenotype persists in north-eastern France, but that there is a low, yet real, risk of hybridisation with sympatric domestic cats. These European Wildcats warrant conservation efforts to protect their genetic integrity.

Dominance rank, morphological characteristics and reproductive success of adult males were measured in a multi-male multi-female group of urban feral cats (Felis catus L.). Paternity of nine litters (34 kittens) of the domestic cat from six females was determined through microsatellites analyses at nine loci. The percentage of multiple paternities in this social group was as high as 78%. A positive correlation was found between male size/body weight and dominance. The males who sired the highest number of kittens were the dominant ones. Additionally, dominant males were more likely to be infected by the feline immunodeficiency virus, a virus transmitted by bites through aggressive interactions. Thus this study demonstrates that rank and body weight were both important in predicting the annual reproductive success. However, it shows that the reproductive benefit associated to rank may be balanced by cost due to at-risk aggressive behaviour of dominant males.

Fruit bats of the genus Pteropus are important contributors to ecosystem maintenance on islands through their roles as pollinators and seed dispersers. However, island faunas are the most prone to extinction and there is a real need to assess the possible genetic implications of population reductions in terms of extinction risk. An effective method of ameliorating extinction risk in endangered species is the establishment of captive populations ex situ. The effectiveness of captive breeding programmes may be assessed by comparing the genetic variability of captive colonies to that of wild counterparts. Here, we use polymorphic microsatellite loci to assess genetic variability in wild, critically endangered Rodrigues fruit bats (Pteropus rodricensis, Dobson 1878) and we compare this variability to that in a captive colony. We document remarkable conservation of genetic variability in both the wild and captive populations, despite population declines and founder events. Our results demonstrate that the wild population has withstood the negative effects of population reductions and that captive breeding programmes can fulfil the goals of retaining genetic diversity and limiting inbreeding.

Understanding how some species may be able to evolve quickly enough to deal with anthropogenic pressure is of prime interest in evolutionary biology, conservation, and management. Wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) populations keep growing all over Europe despite increasing hunting pressure. In wild boar populations subject to male-selective harvesting, the initially described polygynous mating system may switch to a promiscuous/polyandrous one. Such a change in the mating system, where potentially more males sire a litter at one reproductive event, may be associated with the retention of high genetic diversity and an increase of litter size. We tested these hypotheses by estimating the number of sires per litter based on a six-year long monitoring of a wild boar population subject to particularly high harvesting pressure. Our results show a high and stable genetic diversity and high rates of multiple paternity compared to other populations, thus depicting a promiscuous/polyandrous mating system in this population. We also show that litter size is positively linked to the number of sires, suggesting that multiple paternity increases fecundity. We finally discuss that multiple paternity may be one of the factors allowing rapid evolution of this population by maintaining both genetic and phenotypic diversity.

Information about the invasion dynamics and demographic status of invasive species is essential to choose the optimal control options of population numbers. While long-term direct demographic and historical records are generally lacking, the analysis of the genetic variability of a current population might supply information about past and current demographic processes. In this study, we analysed the genetic variability of the cat population living on the main island of the Kerguelen archipelago. Genetic diversity was consistent with the introduction of a very small number of individuals followed by a demographic explosion of the cat population. Significant genetic structure among sites (Fst=0.06 ±0.005) and absence of isolation by distance could indicate that the initial phase of fast colonisation is now over. Estimates of individual relatedness indicated a significant kin structure. Overall data suggested that the cat population of the main island has probably reached carrying capacity.

Reproductive consequences of male spacing patterns have received relatively little attention in nonterritorial mammals, in particular in group-living species, where most studies have focused on the relation between social rank and reproductive success. We investigated the effects of spacing pattern on male reproductive success within a social, nonterritorial, promiscuous population of stray cats, Felis catus. Male home ranges overlapped home ranges of many females, consistent with a promiscuous mating system. Furthermore, males with the largest home ranges included the most female home ranges; they successfully reproduced with these females and had the highest reproductive success. Home range size predicted male reproductive success even when controlling for the effect of social rank. However, males also reproduced with females whose home range did not overlap their home range, suggesting that males can make quick excursions outside their home range to find new mating opportunities. We conclude that, in group-living situations, a male's ability to maintain a large home range may be one of the principal causes of variation in mating success in the stray cat.

Summary 1 The domestic feral cat (Felis catus L.) is a good model for studying intraspecific variability of dispersal patterns in mammals because cats live under a large diversity of socio-ecological conditions. We analysed both the natal and breeding dispersal patterns of domestic cats in a promiscuous urban population and tested whether or not it differed from the male-biased natal dispersal pattern observed for polygynous rural populations. 2 During an 8-year study we recorded the exact date of in situ death for 148 marked cats and the exact date of disappearance from the population for 99 other cats. Because undiscovered deaths might over-estimate dispersal probabilities when considering only disappearance probabilities, we made an novel application of multistrata capture–recapture methods in order to disentangle dispersal from true mortality. 3 We showed that mature females dispersed, both before and after their first reproduction, at 1 and 2 years old. Contrary to females, no dispersal seemed to occur in males. Before sexual maturity, females that disappeared at 1 and 2 years old were in worse body condition than females that stayed in the population area after 2 years old. However, they did not reproduce less successfully before their disappearance than females that died later in the population area. 4 The female-biased and low natal dispersal pattern in this population was atypical compared to other promiscuous/polygynous mammals and differed from that observed in rural polygynous populations of domestic cat. Neither local mate competition nor inbreeding avoidance appeared to be sufficient pressures to counterbalance ecological constraints on dispersal in an urban environment. However, local resource competition for den sites between potential matriarchies could lead to the breeding dispersal of less competitive females.

In order to investigate the mating system of domestic cats living in a sub-Antarctic environment, we sampled 40 kittens belonging to 13 litters (from 9 mothers) in the main island of Kerguelen archipelago. We genotyped females and kittens using nine microsatellite markers. Contrary to what has been found in environments under strong human influence where the mating system is polygynous or promiscuous, and where male cats were in general not able to control the access to receptive females, results show that kittens from the same litter were sired by only one male in the Kerguelen population. It is hypothesised that this pattern is the closest to that of the original environment of adaptation.

Phenotypic variation in hybridizing species or subspecies is a prerequisite for allowing conservation ecologists and wildlife managers to identify parental populations and their hybrids in the field. We assessed the reliability of a set of eight morphological (body size and pelage characters) and four anatomical criteria (skull and intestine morphometric measurements) to distinguish between 302 French specimens classified as wildcat, domestic cat or hybrid on the basis of a Bayesian analysis (STRUCTURE) of their multilocus microsatellite genotypes. This aim was achieved by performing a set of multivariate analyses on morphological, anatomical and genetic data sets (Hill and Smith's analysis, co-inertia analysis and discriminant analysis of principal components). Wildcats and domestic cats were very satisfactorily distinguished, even when using simple non-invasive morphological criteria easily usable in the field like the morphology of the tail, dorsal line or flank stripes. Using anatomical instead of morphological characters slightly increased the discriminating power. Many more difficulties arose when we tried to distinguish hybrid specimens from both wildcat and domestic ones. Anatomical characters performed better than morphological ones in recognizing hybrids, but the assignment success rate remained very low, about 31.6% and 1.5%, respectively. Overall, the most discriminating characters were two continuous, derived anatomical characters: the cranial index followed by the intestinal index. Classification of specimens in three classes based on their microsatellite genotypes appeared to be inadequate for identifying hybrid specimens, as hybrid specimens seemed to be distributed along an anatomical continuum. With this observation in mind, we assessed the linear relationships between a proxy of the individual level of hybridization (qik) and the cranial and intestinal indices, respectively. Both relationships were highly significant. The greatest correlation was found with the cranial index (R² = 60.4%). Altogether, our results suggest that future work should be geared towards enhancing the measure of hybridization using more discriminating molecular markers and improving morphometric skull measurements through the use of modern geometric morphometric methods, using landmarks rather than skull dimension.

Summary In highly variable environments, the optimal reproductive tactics of iteroparous organisms should minimize variance in yearly reproductive success to maximize the long-term average reproductive success. To minimize among-year variation in reproductive success, individuals can either minimize the variance in the number of offspring produced at each reproductive attempt (classical bet-hedging) or maximize the phenotypic diversity of offspring produced within or among reproductive attempts (coin-flipping). From a long-term detailed study of an intensively exploited population facing a highly unpredictable environment, we identify a continuum of reproductive tactics in wild boar females depending on their body mass. At one end, light females adjusted litter size to their body mass and produced highly similar-sized offspring within a litter. These females fitted the hypothesis of individual optimization commonly reported in warm-blooded species, which involves both an optimal mass and an optimal number of offspring for a given mother. At the other end of the continuum, heavy females produced litters of variable size including a mixture of heavy and light offspring within litters. Prolific heavy wild boar females diversify the phenotype of their offspring, providing a first evidence for coin-flipping in a warm-blooded species.

a Centre de Genetique Moleculaire et Cellulaire (CGMC), CNRS UMR 5534, Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France b Laboratoire d’Anthropologie des Populations du Passe, CNRS UMR 5199 PACEA, Universite Bordeaux 1, Talence, France c UCD School of Biology and Environmental Science, UCD, BelWeld, Dublin 4, Ireland d Laboratoire d’Ecologie des Hydrosystemes Fluviaux, CNRS UMR 5023, Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France e Biogeosciences-Dijon, CNRS UMR 5561, Universite de Bourgogne, Centre des Sciences de la Terre, Dijon, France f Department of Palaeontology, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels, Belgium g Department of Biology, University College London, WC1E 6BT, UK h Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia i Laboratoire de Biometrie et Biologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5558, Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France

Individual differences in behaviour are a phenomenon that is more and more attracting the attention of scientists. Among the other reasons, behavioural individuality occurs because selection favours the adoption of different tactics by individuals. It is now widely recognized that within many vertebrate species, individuals vary along an axis the extremes of which are represented by individuals 'bold' and 'shy', sometimes called 'proactive' and 'reactive'. Here we present the case of feral domestic cats (Felis catus L.) living in group in the urban environment where showing bold attitudes is linked to the benefit of a high annual reproductive success but, on the other hand, to a high probability to be infected by the Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV), a lethal disease caused by a retrovirus. In this species, natural selection has probably favoured proactive temperament in spite of the cost represented by getting the disease. In fact, proactive individuals, even if FIV positive, reproduce more than reactive individuals before the last stage of FIV-infection (AIDS) characterized by a loss of immunological defences and subsequent opportunistic infections. Evolutionary implications are discussed.

Populations of fallow deer, in general, have low genetic diversity. Nevertheless, we screened 39 microsatellite loci and identified 20 that were polymorphic and suitable to determine paternity of fallow deer. To date, paternity has been studied for 87, 110 and 152 fallow deer fawns born between 2000 and 2002. Our results confirm the existence of a strong polygynous mating system in our population and confirm that the number of copulations performed by males is globally a good estimator of their reproductive success: males which performed the largest proportion of matings fathered the largest proportion of fawns. Nevertheless, we report some differences between the two measurements of the males' reproductive success: measures of copulatory success underestimated the variance of the males' reproductive success. On average, males whose copulatory score exceeded their paternity had mated with a higher proportion of younger females. Young females may be more likely to lose the conceptus, or their offspring may suffer high postnatal mortality.

We analysed levels of genetic differentiation between nine local urban colonies of stray cats using eight coat colour and nine microsatellite loci. Both types of markers revealed a strong differentiation between colonies (FST = 0.15 and 0.09 for coat colour and microsatellite loci, respectively). Three coat colour loci showed extreme levels of genetic differentiation comparatively to other loci and are strongly suspected to be under divergent selective pressures. Microsatellite loci showed significant heterozygote deficiency within colonies (FIS = 0.14), suggesting that coat colour loci are not appropriate to investigate genetic structure at a fine scale because coat colour allele frequencies are based on Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The reported pattern conformed to that predicted from the social structuring of cat colonies: aggressive exclusion of immigrants, inbreeding and very low dispersal rate.

International audience; Assessing the impact (direct or indirect) of introduced predator species on native seabird populations is a clear management priority, particularly so in the simple sub-Antarctic ecosystems where these effects may be dramatic. We evaluated the diet of introduced feral cats (Felis catus L.) on the Grande Terre, Kerguelen archipelago, by analysing 149 scats from 5 sites. Overall, rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) were the primary prey (72.6%), followed by house mice (Mus musculus) (11.6%) and birds (all species confounded, 14.9%). However, the proportions of the three prey species varied among sites, reflecting the spreading pattern of cats onto the Grande Terre. Birds were consumed much less frequently in this study (7.3%, all sites pooled but one) compared to a 1976 study in the same area (66.3%), suggesting that cats had a strong impact on the native avifauna.

We used the walked-line transect method for estimating the density of cats and coefficients of variation of density estimates in 4 contrasted sites on the main island of Iles Kerguelen between 1998 and 2000. Density estimates varied from 0.44±0.15 cats per km2 to 2.42±0.23 cats per km2 according to site and period. Coefficient of variation of density estimates ranged from 11.92% to 34.76%. The line transect method was, therefore, an efficient method for monitoring the density of the cat population in a sub-Antarctic environment characterised by short vegetation. Our results suggest that cat population size at the main island of Iles Kerguelen (the total number of cats expected is around 7,000) is much lower than previously thought.

Previous studies have predicted that the availability over time of females in oestrus influences the variance of male reproductive success in a given year. When females are spatially aggregated, they represent a potentially defendable resource for each male when oestrus is asynchronous, and the most competitive males are expected to gain priority of access to receptive females. When females breed synchronously, a single male, even when highly competitive, is not able to prevent them from mating with other males. This hypothesis was tested in a large multimale-multifemale group of domestic cats, Felis catus, which was monitored for three years. The results support the prediction that the variance in male reproductive success was four times greater in years when females bred asynchronously, and dominant males sired the highest proportion of offspring. We conclude that the temporal availability of mates plays a role in the adoption of reproductive tactics in the domestic cat.

Paternity was analysed in two domestic cat (Felis catus) populations differing in habitat structure (rural versus urban) and density (234 cats km-2 versus 2,091 cats km-2). A total of 312 offspring, 76 mothers and 65 putative fathers were typed at nine microsatellite loci in the two populations. Our data showed a high rate of multiple paternity in the urban population (70-83% of litters with more than one father), whereas it was much lower in the rural population (0-22% of litters with more than one), as most males were able to monopolize the entire litter. However, males reproduced as soon as they reached sexual maturity (i.e. ten months of age) in the urban population, whereas most males delayed reproduction to age three years in the rural population.

The relative lack of epidemiological studies of natural populations is partly due to the difficulty of obtaining samples that are both large enough and representative of the population. Here, we present the result of an epidemiological study (December 1992-August 1995) of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) in a free-roaming population of domestic cats (Felis catus), with a special emphasis on sample bias. Over five trapping periods, the prevalence of FIV in sampled cats steadily declined. Across these samples we consistently achieved a very large sampling fraction (approximately 60% of the population), the sex ratio, age and weight distributions remained stable with time in the samples, and the sex ratio was similar in the samples and the population. These indices would normally indicate that our samples were representative, suggesting the decline in FIV prevalence to be real. However, a concomitant ecological study of the whole population revealed an important bias in the samples, with an initial high probability of capturing a few individuals, which appeared significantly more likely to be FIV-infected, and then a lower probability of recapturing them. Since our protocol resulted in a non-random sampling, subsequent trappings were designed to avoid this bias, by also capturing individuals who had previously learned to escape capture. This modified capture regime revealed that FIV prevalence was in fact constant in the population. This study shows how samples of large size, which are stable and appear representative of the population, can still be biased. These results may have major implications for other studies based on trapping.

The increasing awareness of the ecological impact of domestic cats (Felis catus) as wildlife predators has given rise to much effort in research on cat control, but studies related to the spread of pathogens in natural populations remain almost non-existent. We aimed to determine the infection strategy of Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) in a natural population of cats, focusing on qualitative and quantitative aspects of its transmission. FIV is a lethal retrovirus infecting cats world-wide, transmitted by bites. It has an interesting potential as a control agent for this species. We studied an urban population of stray cats over three years, monitoring its epidemiology and its social and spatial structures. Despite a high cat density, both transmission rate and prevalence of FIV were relatively low. Socially dominant males were more likely to be infected. In addition, males of the study population were less often infected than in another population, where a polygynous mating system involved more fights. Infected individuals lived long enough to acquire the virus and infect another cat. Because they were subordinates, non-infected cats had a shorter life expectancy, which would not have permitted the spread of FIV. Thus, FIV infected predominantly at-risk individuals whose social ranking allowed a high probability of retransmitting the virus.

Population size and densities are key parameters in both fundamental (e.g. population dynamic) and applied ecology (e.g. wildlife management), as they will affect population resilience to density-dependent and stochastic events. Variation in population size emerge from the interaction between ecological processes such as survival, reproduction, movement or social interactions, and environmental factors such as resource availability, habitat suitability and anthropogenic disturbances. Deriving efficient management measures (e.g. for disease and pest control) or species conservation programs thus requires accurate estimates of population abundance and densities, and the identification of their environmental and endogenous drivers. This is especially the case for continuously distributed species, encompassing a wide range of habitats. One example of social and widely distributed mammal is the European badger Meles meles, which occupies a broad range of environments across Europe. The aim of my PhD was to study spatial variation in abundance and social organisation of badger populations in France, at different scales. At the large scale using detections of badgers across metropolitan France, we showed that environmental drivers of badger abundance differed depending on altitude. In lowlands, abundance was mostly driven by biotic factors (such as potential food resources), while abiotic factors (here soil texture and climate) drove the variation in badger abundance in mountainous areas. At a smaller scale, we determined badger local densities in thirteen contrasted sites across France, using a common protocol and a combination of non-invasive methodological approaches (walked transects surveys, camera trapping and genetic identification with hair trapping) to identify which endogenous factors and habitat characteristics drove local variation in badger density. Adult density was positively correlated with the density of badger setts but was not linked to social group size. Besides, highly fragmented landscapes supported lower adult densities. Genotyping badgers at these sites also allowed us to study between- and within-population genetic structure, and to identify the spatial scale at which most gene flow occurs. At the large scale, we observed a significant genetic differentiation between populations not related to the geographic distance between sites. Within populations, we detected a threshold value of 400m, below which badgers were genetically close; highlighting that sociality is the major structuring process within badger populations at this fine scale. Finally, we focused on the spatio-temporal evolution of group composition and contact rates between individuals (intra- and inter-groups), through a still on-going deployment of GPS/Proximity collars on badgers from four adjacent social groups. This thesis highlights the importance of both exogenous and endogenous factors in shaping badger abundance at multiple scales. These results are of particular importance for deriving efficient population management programs (e.g. regarding bovine tuberculosis zoonosis).; Estimer l’abondance ou la densité des populations est une étape clé, à la fois en écologie fondamentale (e.g. dynamique des populations) et en écologie appliquée (e.g. gestion de la faune sauvage). En effet, ces paramètres vont influencer la résilience des populations vis-à-vis d’évènements stochastiques ou densité-dépendants. Les variations de taille de populations ont pour origine à la fois des processus écologiques, tels que la survie, la reproduction, le mouvement des individus ou leurs interactions sociales, et des facteurs environnementaux tels que la disponibilité en ressources ou les perturbations anthropiques. Ainsi, la mise en place de mesures de gestion ou de conservation nécessite de connaitre les abondances populationnelles et d’en identifier les principaux déterminants environnementaux et endogènes. Ceci est particulièrement le cas pour des espèces largement distribuées et occupant des habitats variés. Un exemple de mammifère social largement répandu en Europe est le blaireau (Meles meles). Le but de mon doctorat fut d’étudier les variations spatiales d’abondance et d’organisation sociale au sein des populations françaises de blaireaux, et cela à différentes échelles spatiales. A large échelle, à partir de détections de blaireaux en France métropolitaine, nous avons pu mettre en évidence que les déterminants environnementaux sous-tendant les variations spatiales d’abondance dépendent de l’altitude. A basse altitude, l’abondance de blaireaux est principalement affectée par des facteurs biotiques comme la disponibilité en ressources alimentaires ; en revanche, à plus haute altitude, ce sont des facteurs abiotiques (ici la texture du sol et le climat) qui influencent l’abondance de blaireaux. A plus fine échelle, nous avons déterminé des densités de blaireaux sur treize sites d’étude contrastés en France en utilisant un unique protocole, via une combinaison de méthodes non-invasives (prospection par transects, piégeage photographique et identification génétique à partir de poils), pour identifier quels facteurs endogènes ou caractéristiques de l’habitat affectent les variations locales de densité. Les densités en adultes sont positivement corrélées à la densité de terriers, mais pas à la taille des groupes sociaux. De plus, les paysages fragmentés supportent des densités en adultes plus faibles. Le génotypage des blaireaux sur ces sites nous a également permis d’étudier la structuration génétique inter- et intra-populationnelle, et d’identifier l’échelle spatiale pour laquelle les flux de gènes sont les plus importants. Au sein des populations, nous avons montré qu’il existe un seuil, ici de 400m, en dessous duquel les blaireaux sont génétiquement plus proches. Ceci suggère que la socialité est le principal processus structurant les populations de blaireaux à fine échelle. Enfin, nous avons étudié l’évolution spatio-temporelle de la composition des groupes sociaux et des contacts entre individus (inter- et intra-groupes). Pour cela, un suivi via le déploiement de colliers GPS/Proximity sur des blaireaux issus de quatre groupes sociaux adjacents est actuellement en cours. Les travaux de ce doctorat ont permis de mettre en évidence l’importance des facteurs à la fois endogènes et exogènes dans les variations spatiales d’abondance de blaireaux, et cela à plusieurs échelles. Ces résultats ont une importance toute particulière pour la mise en place de programmes de gestion pour cette espèce (e.g. vis-à-vis de la tuberculose bovine).

The wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) is a peculiar species. It is an appreciated game species for hunters, a nightmare for farmers and a subject of debate for the society in general. The tenfold increase of the population over the last decades in France and all over Europe, despite increased hunting pressure, generated great human-wildlife conflict. The wild boar is responsible for great economic losses due to vehicle collision, diseases transmission and damaged crops and ecosystems. Improving management strategies becomes a prime interest to avoid such conflicts, or at least keep them under control. Obtaining information on the species is a first step toward good management strategies. The objective of my work is, in a first part, to characterize the mating system of the wild boar and to identify some parameters, especially hunting, influencing the reproductive processes. The second part focus on the investigation of the influence of the mating system on wild boar life history traits. My researches are based on the study of several populations contrasting in their hunting practices and on longitudinal data of a highly monitored population. The study is based on data collected on wild boars killed by hunting. Genotypes were obtained for pregnant females and their litter and paternity analyses were realized to measure the number of fathers in a litter and estimate multiple paternity rates (proportion of litter sired by more than one father). I was able to show that the mating system is mainly promiscuous (several males mate with several females) contrasting with the polygyny (a dominant male monopolizing a group of females) usually described in this species. Moreover, reproductive processes, estimated by the number of mates of a female and the multiple paternity rates, are influenced by hunting variations in a population. I also showed that number of fathers has positive effect on female fecundity. High rates of multiple paternity together with high genetic diversity were found in a heavily hunted population, suggesting multiple paternity may buffer yearly bottlenecks. However, the increase of number of fathers is not associated with increase of within-litter variation; Le sanglier (Sus scrofa scrofa) est une espèce à part entière. C'est une espèce de gibier particulièrement appréciée des chasseurs, un cauchemar pour les agriculteurs et un sujet de débat pour la société en général. La multiplication par dix des populations au cours des dernières décennies en France et dans toute l'Europe, malgré une pression de chasse accrue, a engendré de nombreux conflits entre les humains et la faune sauvage. Le sanglier est responsable de grandes pertes économiques dues aux collisions avec les véhicules, à la transmission de maladies et de dommages aux cultures et écosystèmes. L'amélioration des stratégies de gestion devient un intérêt majeur pour éviter, ou contrôler, de tels conflits. La récolte d'informations sur l'espèce problématique est un premier pas vers de bonnes stratégies de gestion. L'objectif de mon travail est, dans un premier temps, de caractériser le système d’appariement du sanglier et d'identifier certains paramètres influençant les processus de reproduction, notamment la chasse. Dans un deuxième temps, mon travail se concentre sur l'étude de l'influence du système d’appariement sur les traits d'histoire de vie du sanglier. Mes recherches sont basées sur l'étude de plusieurs populations contrastées dans leurs pratiques de chasse et sur des données longitudinales d'une population intensivement suivie. L'étude est basée sur des données recueillies sur des sangliers tués à la chasse. Les génotypes ont été obtenus pour les femelles gestantes et leur portée et des analyses de paternité ont été réalisées pour mesurer le nombre de pères dans une portée et estimer les taux de paternité multiples (proportion de portées engendrées par plus d'un père). J'ai été en mesure de montrer que le système d’appariement est principalement de promiscuite (plusieurs mâles s'accouplent avec plusieurs femelles) contrastant avec la polygynie (un mâle dominant monopolisant un groupe de femelles) habituellement décrite chez cette espèce. De plus, les processus de reproduction, estimés par le nombre de partenaires d'une femelle et les taux de paternité multiples, sont influencés par les variations de chasse dans une population. J'ai aussi montré que le nombre de pères avait un effet positif sur la fécondité des femelles. Des taux élevés de paternité multiple et une grande diversité génétique ont été constatés ensemble dans une population fortement chassée, ce qui suggère que la paternité multiple peut tamponner les goulots d'étranglement annuels. Cependant, l'augmentation du nombre de père n'est pas associée à une augmentation de la variation intraportée