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En partant de la signification populaire attribuée au terme de mélange, cet article s’intéresse à la délimitation du français et du créole dans les représentations linguistiques de jeunes étudiants martiniquais ayant des pratiques langagières bilingues. Nous souhaitions notamment avoir des indices sur l’évolution du français régional qui renvoie à une nouvelle réalité aux Antilles depuis au moins deux générations avec des locuteurs ayant le français comme langue première (L1) (que ce soit comme unique L1 ou comme deuxième L1 avec le créole). En nous appuyant sur le cadre méthodologique de la linguistique perceptive, nous avons invité nos informateurs à nous proposer, par écrit, des exemples caractéristiques de productions « mélangées » français-créole qu’on retrouve dans les pratiques quotidiennes en Martinique. Notre étude se veut qualitative et propose un modèle de classification possible à partir de l’analyse des exemples récoltés dans les questionnaires. Nous avons ainsi distingué cinq phénomènes dans les réponses des étudiants appartenant à différents niveaux linguistiques : des interférences au niveau de la syntaxe, des hypercorrections au niveau de la phonologie, des alternances codiques – clairement marquées par la graphie – au niveau de la syntaxe, des emprunts lexicaux et enfin des hybridations, qui peuvent être de type phonologique, morphologique et sémantique. Dans leurs représentations, les étudiants distinguent ainsi clairement deux systèmes, le français et le créole, et identifient des « mélanges » entre les deux. Il faut cependant souligner qu’il ne s’agit là ni du français standard fantasmé ni du créole basilectal, mais du créole contemporain et du français régional antillais L1. Starting from the popular meaning attributed to the French word mélange (mixing), this article focuses on the delineation of French and Creole in the linguistic representations of young Martinican students with bilingual language practices. We particularly wanted to have indications about the evolution of regional French that refers to a new reality in the West Indies for at least two generations with speakers having French as their first language (L1) (whether as a single L1 or as a second L1 with Creole). Based on the methodological framework of perceptual linguistics, we invited our informants to propose, in writing, characteristic examples of French-Creole « mixed » productions found in everyday practices in Martinique. Our study is qualitative and proposes a possible classification model based on the analysis of the examples collected in the questionnaires. We thus distinguished five phenomena illustrated in the students’ answers: syntax interference, phonological hypercorrections, code alternations – clearly marked by the spelling – on the syntactical level, lexical borrowing and finally phonological, morphological and semantic hybridizations. In their representations, the students clearly distinguish two systems, French and Creole, and identify « mixes » between the two. It must be emphasized, however, that this is neither standard fantasized French nor basilectal Creole, but contemporary Creole and regional Antillean French L1.

In this study, I will provide a decompositional analysis of Llanito’s articles, both definite and indefinite, as well as the many fused preposition + article combinations. Prima facie, Llanito seems to show phonologically conditioned allomorph (PCA) selection, including a melodically-conditioned allomorphy triggered exclusively by /w/. However, taking a Strict CV approach, building on work on Standard Italian (Larsen 998; Faust et al. 2018), Galician (Ulfsbjorninn 2020) and southern and central Italo-Romance dialects, including Old Tuscan varieties, (Russo & Ulfsbjorninn 2021), I will show that the whole system of articles in Llanito can be generated without the use of allomorphy at all. Instead, all the surface variants are generated from the combination of a unified set of syntactic exponents fed through the language’s regular phonology. This analysis joins the Llanito phenomena to the research program started by Scheer (2016) where PCA analyses are reanalyzed in purely phonological terms. Dans cette étude, je fournis une analyse décompositionnelle des articles de Llanito, définis et indéfinis, ainsi que des nombreuses combinaisons fusionnées préposition + article. Prima facie, Llanito semble montrer une sélection d’allomorphes phonologiquement conditionnés (PCA), y compris une allomorphie mélodiquement conditionnée déclenchée exclusivement par /w/. Cependant, en adoptant une approche CV stricte, en s’appuyant sur des travaux sur l’italien standard (Larsen 1998 ; Faust et al. 2018), le galicien (Ulfsbjorninn 2020) et les dialectes italo-romans centraux et méridionaux, y compris les variétés de l’ancienne Toscane (Russo & Ulfsbjorninn 2021), je montrerai que l’ensemble du système d’articles du Llanito peut être généré sans aucune allomorphie. Au contraire, toutes les variantes de surface sont générées à partir de la combinaison d’un ensemble unifié d’exposants syntaxiques alimentés par la phonologie régulière de la langue. Cette analyse met les phénomènes de Llanito dans un programme de recherche commencé par Scheer (2016) où les analyses PCA sont réanalysées en termes purement phonologiques.

Language interference is common in today’s multilingual societies where more languages are in contact, and as a global result leads to the creation of hybrid languages. These, together with doubts on their right to be officially recognised, emerged the problem of their automatic identification and further elaboration in the area of computational linguistics. In this paper, we propose a first attempt to identify the elements of a Ukrainian-Russian hybrid language, Surzhyk, through the adoption of the example-based rules created with the instruments of programming language R. Our example-based study consists of: 1) analysis of spoken samples of Surzhyk registered by Del Gaudio (2010) in Kyiv area and creation of the written corpus; 2) production of specific rules on the identification of Surzhyk patterns and their implementation; 3) testing the code and analysing the effectiveness of the hybrid language classifier., Umanistica Digitale, Vol. 9 (2020)

Взаимодействие с западным миром предопределило появление в Китае контактных языков, сочетавших преимущественно заимствованную лексику c особыми диалектными вариантами исходной китайской фонетики и изолирующей грамматики. Потребность в упрощенных пиджинах, на которых китайцы общались с европейцами, в основном отпала к началу ХХ в. Исчезающими считаются сейчас почти все креолизированные языки — не только с европейской составляющей, но также возникшие у местных народов на основе отличной от китайской собственной грамматики и в основном китайской лексики. Для современных китайцев, особенно в компьютерно-опосредованной коммуникации, характерны произвольные смешанные варианты, в которых присутствует официальный путунхуа, а также элементы из китайских диалектов и английского языка. Смешанный русский язык с отдельными исламскими терминами и иногда обиходными словами из дунганского языка — по сути дела из китайских диалектов подгруппы Чжунъюань внутри группы гуаньхуа — предпочитают использовать в Интернете дунгане бывшего СССР., Starting from the 18th century, interaction with the Western world resulted in the appearance in China of several contact languages combining mainly foreign lexicon with the local variants of Chinese dialect phonetics and isolating grammar. Simplified pidgins had existed until the beginning of the 20th century, when the Chinese got an opportunity to learn European languages. Most of the creolized varieties, which arose due to the contacts not only of the Chinese with the Westerners, but also of the local ethnic groups with the Chinese, are now listed as endangered. At present, mixed texts in computer-mediated communication can include elements both of Standard Mandarin and of the Chinese dialects, as well as some English words and expressions. The Dungans of the former Soviet Union, who originally spoke the dialects of the Zhongyuan subgroup within the Northern dialects of Chinese, prefer to use on the web Russian texts with Islamic terms and some lexicon from their native Dungan language.

ilustraciones, fotografías, mapas Este trabajo de investigación abordó el caso de la comunidad de descendientes japoneses Nikkei residente en el departamento del Valle del Cauca en Colombia, con el fin de comprender el resultado del contacto lingüístico generado por las migraciones japonesas en la región a principios del siglo XX en el estado actual de las lenguas que se hablan actualmente en esta comunidad. Debido a las dinámicas que se presentan en un escenario de contacto de lenguas, se buscó conocer qué incidencia han tenido estas a favor y en contra de la lengua ancestral de la comunidad, el japonés, y si estas habían propiciado fenómenos cómo el bilingüismo. Para tal fin, se indagó sobre la percepción de identidad que tienen los Nikkei en conexión con sus actitudes lingüísticas para entender el valor que estos le asignan a la lengua ancestral y contrastar su relación con la lengua del contexto dominante, el español. Partiendo desde la sociología del lenguaje, se planteó llevar a cabo una investigación de enfoque mixto con predominancia cualitativa de tipo transversal, de alcance descriptivo y diseño etnográfico mixto para dar explicación a los hallazgos encontrados. Los datos obtenidos se obtuvieron por el método de bola de nieve a través de dos instrumentos de recolección de datos, una entrevista y una encuesta. Los resultados indican que la lengua ancestral ha sido desplazada y buena parte de sus funciones han sido asumidas por la lengua del contexto dominante. No obstante, se observó que el bilingüismo individual desempeña un papel importante dentro de la comunidad ya que la lengua ancestral tiene hablantes, es empleada en determinados contextos y todavía tiene un valor para algunos miembros de la comunidad. (Texto tomado de la fuente) This research paper addressed the case of the Nikkei community of Japanese descendants residing in the department of Valle del Cauca in Colombia with the aim to analyze the result of the linguistic contact generated by Japanese migrations in the region in the early twentieth century and the state of the languages currently spoken in this community. Due to the dynamics that occur in a scenario of language contact, this research sought to know what impact such dynamics have had in favor and against the ancestral language of the community, Japanese, in connection with other linguistic phenomena such as bilingualism and language shift. To this end, the perception of identity that the Nikkei have in connection with their linguistic attitudes was analyzed to understand the value that they assign to the ancestral language in contrast to the connection they have with the language of the dominant context, Spanish. To explain the findings, it was proposed to carry out from the perspective of the sociology of language, a mixed approach research with qualitative predominance of a transversal type, descriptive scope, and mixed ethnographic design. The data were obtained by the snowball method through two data collection instruments, an interview, and a survey. The results indicate that the ancestral language has lost most of its functions and they have been assumed by the language of the dominant context. However, it was also observed that individual bilingualism plays an important role within the community since the ancestral language has speakers, is used in certain contexts, and still has a value for some members of the community which has prevented it from being completely shifted. Maestría Magíster en Lingüística Bilingüismo y contacto de lenguas

This book comprises a synchronic description of Tagdal a Songhay-Berber mixed language spoken in the southeastern and central regions of the Republic of Niger. It begins with a summary of the historic and general sociolinguistic situation in Niger and how it affects speakers of Tagdal, followed by a description of the sound system, beginning with the consonant and vowel inventories, as well as some phonological processes. The largest sections include a description of the grammar, starting with the morphology. The intricate interactions between stress placement, vowel and consonant length, and certain aspects of the morphology are described in detail. Special attention is given to the idea that Tagdal contains two prosodic sub-systems, one for vocabulary of Songhay origin and another for vocabulary of Berber-Tuareg origin. This leads to processes such as suppletion of Songhay cognates, with suppletive stems of Tuareg origin. The syntax of Tagdal is also described, including descriptions of how clauses are combined to form both simple and complex sentences. Attention is also paid to how Tagdal combines sentences into higher-level units such as paragraphs, sections and discourses.

This study of Media Lengua examines production differences between mid and high vowels in order to identify the major correlates that distinguish these vowel types. The Media Lengua vowel system is unusual in that it incorporates lexical items originating in Spanish’s five-vowel system into a three-vowel system inherited from Quichua, resulting in high degrees of overlap between the front versus back, mid and high vowel pairs /e, i/ and /o, u/ in F1xF2 space. As Media Lengua speakers utilize and differentiate between all five vowels despite the large degree of acoustic overlap between mid and high vowels, this raises the question of what other correlates beyond F1 and F2 might be involved. To address this, our study looks at a range of variables, both acoustic and qualitative, in a multi-method approach using both 'factor analysis for mixed data and linear mixed effects regression modelling'. Each method provides a unique view on the correlates of vowel differentiation in Media Lengua. Taken together, our results indicate that Media Lengua speakers rely on both social and linguistic contextual cues to distinguish mid from high vowels, which overlap in acoustic space (F1 and F2).

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: The present paper aims to situate Macaronic Latin, a peculiar type of linguistic mixture that was used in literary works in early modern Europe, within the context of phenomena such as code-switching and borrowing, as well as mixed and constructed languages. The main objective is to see whether and how it can be compared to various instances of linguistic structures originating from more than one source language. Design/Methodology/Approach: After a description of its historical background and sociolinguistic features, main linguistic traits of Macaronic Latin are sketched and, finally, compared to other language contact phenomena, with particular reference to the fusion hypothesis. Data and Analysis: The main data for the analysis are sixty samples from macaronic works belonging to eleven language pairs. The analysis shows that mixed words in Macaronic Latin have properties of both borrowings and loans, being very similar to nonce formations. When compared to mixed and constructed languages, Macaronic Latin shows peculiarities that set it apart from either group. Findings/Conclusions: Although individual structural aspects of Macaronic Latin align its individual aspects with various outcomes of linguistic contact, the sociolinguistic pattern of its creation and later development make it a rather untypical case of linguistic mixing. Originality: Latin served as the main language of learned communication in medieval and early modern Europe; yet, this paper is the first study devoted to putting it in the context of mixed language debate. Significance/Implications: The study suggests that the preservation of the widespread use of a language with no native speakers requires sociolinguistic forces so strong so as to override many trends of what has been established as regular linguistic development. This implies that in investigating such cases we might need a modified research methodology and an extended terminology.

International audience; Auer (1999) and O'Shannessy (2012) suggest that codeswitching can become conventionalized, i.e., what is dubbed a "fused lect", and eventually give rise to a "mixed language". In this paper I propose that the study of sentence processing can shed light on this process. I discuss recent experimental data from a typologically rare form of mixing, variably termed "fused lect" (Adamou 2010) and "unevenly mixed language" (Adamou and Granqvist 2015), characterized by the conventionalized use of Turkish verbs together with Turkish morphology in a Romani environment. Specifically, Adamou and Shen (2019) conducted two on-line experiments, a picture choice task with sentence auditory stimuli (37 participants) and a word recognition task in sentence context (49 participants). Results from these experiments indicate that language switching costs depend on the degree of conventionalization and support usage-based approaches to language processing. I argue that these findings also lend support to the categorization of fused lects as an intermediate form between codeswitching and mixed languages.

Finland is officially a bilingual country but it is in practice multilingual. In the current study, we examined how mothers and fathers of mixed-language families linguistically identified themselves and others, and how ideological discourses and concepts historically and socially situated in Finland circulated through the parents’ talk. The parents of three families in which at least Finnish, Swedish and English were used on a daily basis were interviewed. A discourse nexus approach showed that the concept of ‘mother tongue(s)’ played a central role and that although all family members were in practice multilingual, there was a strong tendency across the couples to identify themselves and others as monolingual. Bilingualism was identified with Finnish-Swedish rather than other languages and a native discourse expressed bilingual identity as granted by birth rather than acquired later. The discourses could be traced back to official language registration procedures, the educational system in Finland, as well as to parents’ own lived experiences. The study illustrates the intricate relationships between language ideologies and how linguistic identities are created and performed among parents, and it pinpoints the need for further studies on how linguistic identities are passed on to and experienced by children along their life trajectories. peerReviewed

Ponašymu – the mixed language code of Těšín SilesiaThis article describes the development of the linguistic situation in the border region of Těšín Silesia throughout its history, with particular emphasis on the so-called ponašymu – a mixed language code used in the Czech part of the region. It is based on a random combination of forms of the traditional Těšín dialect with the standard Czech language and, to a lesser extent, elements borrowed from the Polish and Slovak languages and from neighbouring Moravian dialects. An important element of the study is the analysis of selected material collected by the author during fieldwork in August 2018. Ponašymu – mieszany kod językowy czeskiego Śląska CieszyńskiegoArtykuł opisuje rozwój sytuacji językowej w pogranicznym regionie Śląska Cieszyńskiego na przestrzeni dziejów, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem tzw. ponašymu – mieszanego kodu językowego używanego w czeskiej części regionu. Oparty jest on na dowolnym łączeniu form tradycyjnego śląskiego dialektu cieszyńskiego ze standardowym językiem czeskim i w mniejszym stopniu elementami zapożyczonymi z języka polskiego, słowackiego i sąsiednich gwar morawskich. Ważnym elementem pracy jest analiza wybranych materiałów zebranych przeze mnie w trakcie badań terenowych w sierpniu 2018 r.

This article describes and analyzes three situations of linguistic contact in the Ancient Near East, taking as its staring point three theoretical studies on contact languages which have been developed recently: the framework of mixed languages (Bakker and Matras, 2013; Meakins, 2013), the theory of written language contact (Johanson, 2013) and the approach to contact among genetically related languages (Epps, Huehnergard and Pat-El, 2013a). The authors argue that the contact systems selected for this article (Ugaritic-Hurrian, Hurro-Akkadian and Canaano-Akkadian), although distinct from the grammatical and sociolinguistic perspective, can all be viewed as expressions of the same dynamic phenomena, where each variety of mixing corresponds to a different stage of a universal continuum of languages in the situation of merger. Consequently, they can be located along the universal cline of mixing: Ugaritic-Hurrian matches the initial stage of intermingling, Hurro-Akkadian reflects gradually more intense blending, and Canaano-Akkadian corresponds to the phase of a profound fusion of the two source codes. By examining and comparing the three cases of mixing, the authors introduce new insights to the general discussion on mixed languages, written language contact and relevance of genetic relation in language intermingling, thus corroborating and/or refining certain hypotheses and propositions that have previously been formulated within the latest theoretical studies., This article is a result of the research project ‘Native Languages, linguae francae, and Graphics Traditions in Late Bronze Age Syria and Palestine: Three Case Studies (Canaan, Ugarit, Emar)’ (FFI2011-25065), funded by the Spanish Ministry for Economic Affairs and Competitiveness within the National Plan for Scientific Research, Development and Technological Innovation (I+D+I).

International audience; From the earliest studies on French in Africa, the goal of which was above all didactic during the first post-colonial period, research interests have been diverse in each francophone country, as a function of the needs and evolution of French —themselves depending on their relationships with the language. Yet up to the beginning of the 21st Century, the dominant theoretical frameworks in descriptive linguistics, sociolinguistics and the study of contact languages were those developed by French scholars in collaboration with African researchers, or re-worked on the basis of North American models in terms of various strands of African fieldwork. For some years now, the contribution of African studies has been both original and particularly useful for general linguistics. These share certain aspects with other geopolitical situations and with the interests of scholars elsewhere in the world: fine-grained and contextualized studies of the ways in which language functions, work on Youth Languages and Mixed Languages, and action research which associates French and African languages in the interests of development.; Depuis les premières études sur le français en Afrique dont le but était surtout didactique durant la première période postcoloniale, les intérêts de recherche se sont différenciés dans chaque pays, selon les besoins et l’évolution du français, eux-mêmes dépendants des rapports avec cette langue. Néanmoins, jusqu’au début des années deux-mille, les cadres théoriques dominants en linguistique descriptive, sociolinguistique et linguistique du contact, sont ceux élaborés par les chercheurs français en collaboration avec des chercheurs africains, ou remaniés à partir de modèles américains grâce aux terrains africains. Depuis quelques années, l’apport des études africaines est original et particulièrement avantageux pour la linguistique générale. Elles partagent certains éléments d’autres situations géopolitiques et les intérêts des chercheurs d’ailleurs dans le monde : études fines et contextualisées du fonctionnement langagier, travaux sur les parlers des jeunes et le français métissé, recherches actions qui associent français et langues africaines pour le développement.

In Ecuador there exists a dynamic language contact continuum between Urban Spanish and Rural Quichua. This study explores the effects of competing phonologies with an analysis of voice onset time (VOT) production in and across three varieties of Ecuadorian highland Spanish, Quichua, and Media Lengua. Media Lengua is a mixed language that contains Quichua systemic elements and a lexicon of Spanish origin. Because of this lexical-grammatical split, Media Lengua is considered the most central point along the language continuum. Native Quichua phonology has a single series of voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, and /k/), while Spanish shows a clear voicing contrast between stops in the same series. This study makes use of nearly 8,000 measurements from 69 participants to (i) document VOT production in the aforementioned language varieties and (ii) analyse the effects of borrowings on VOT. Results based on mixed effects models and multidimensional scaling suggest that the voicing contrast has entered both Media Lengua and Quichua through Spanish lexical borrowings. However, the VOT values of voiced stops in Media Lengua align with those of Rural and L2 Spanish while Quichua shows significantly longer prevoicing values, suggesting some degree of overshoot.

The linguist with an interest in the outcomes of language contact will be delighted with Wutun. Janhunen et al. have done a great service to the field by giving us both a reliable outline of the structures of Wutun, and (more importantly from a contact perspective) by identifying historical sources of the various Wutun lexemes and structures that they describe. Under this well-informed treatment, Wutun no longer appears to be a random mixture, nor even a particularly odd language. Wutun is, the authors clearly show, a language of Sinitic extraction, which has undergone significant restructuring as a result of intensive contact with Tibetan; there is also limited borrowing from Mongolic, but this influence is very small.

This study reports on language mixing in two Romani communities, with a century-long presence in Finland and in Greece respectively. A quantitative analysis of free-speech data shows that verbs from the contact languages, Finnish and Turkish, are systematically inserted into a dominant Romani speech with their respective Finnish and Turkish tense, mood, aspect, and person morphology. The insertion in language A of non-integrated single words from language B is atypical for classic code-switching and borrowing, but is a well-known mechanism in the creation of mixed languages. Unlike mixed languages, however, where no single dominant language can be identified, Romani is the main component in the corpora under study. We suggest that this type of Romani language mixing illustrates an early stage of mixed language formation that did not develop into an independent mixed language, owing to changes in the sociopolitical settings.

International audience; The intense Berber-Songhay language contact that produced Northern Songhay cannot be understood adequately without taking into account the existence of a Northern Songhay language outside the Azawagh valley – Korandjé, in Algeria – showing no significant signs of Tuareg contact. This article proposes a new explanation based on linguistic, epigraphic, and historical data: Western Berber-speaking Masūfa, present throughout northern Mali around 1200, founded Tabelbala to facilitate a new trade route; they chose Northern Songhay speakers, already a distinct group, for their experience in oasis farming and possibly copper mining. As Masūfa influence waned, the language was reoriented towards North Africa.

International audience; The intense Berber-Songhay language contact that produced Northern Songhay cannot be understood adequately without taking into account the existence of a Northern Songhay language outside the Azawagh valley – Korandjé, in Algeria – showing no significant signs of Tuareg contact. This article proposes a new explanation based on linguistic, epigraphic, and historical data: Western Berber-speaking Masūfa, present throughout northern Mali around 1200, founded Tabelbala to facilitate a new trade route; they chose Northern Songhay speakers, already a distinct group, for their experience in oasis farming and possibly copper mining. As Masūfa influence waned, the language was reoriented towards North Africa.

Two main languages of Haiti (creole and french) are " mixed " in the context of socio-political, intercommunal and sociodidactics interactions. The periods of presidential elections from 2000 to 2011 have highlighted in public discourse dynamics ordinary "inter-resolectal" practices and its corollary of "socio-pragma-linguistic" insecurity. This oral dynamic is part of the history of the island and plantation society that colonial powers have imposed. This generates glottopolitic problems. Based on theories of context, called from a double interactionist and variationist anchor, this thesis attempts to question, diagnose, understand and change the problematic of the oral part of Haiti's education system. The results of the analysis show an unequal of educational, professional and academic achievement, because of the inadequacy and the breakout between school and extracurricular linguistic practices. A pragmatic approach is advocated for the teaching of haitian oral , with datasheets, to try to improve school practices by transposing ordinary practices in teaching.; Deux principales langues d’Haïti (créole et français) se trouvent « mélangées » dans le contexte d’interactions sociopolitiques, intercommunautaires et sociodidactiques. Les périodes des élections présidentielles allant de 2000 à 2011 ont mis en lumière dans les discours publics une dynamique de pratiques ordinaires « inter-résolectales » et son corollaire d’insécurité « socio-pragma-linguistique ». Cette dynamique à l’oral s’inscrit dans l’histoire de l’île et de la société de plantation que les puissances coloniales y ont imposée. Cela génère des problèmes glottopolitiques. En s’appuyant sur théories du contexte, convoquées à partir d’un double ancrage interactionniste et variationniste, cette thèse tente de questionner, diagnostiquer, comprendre et modifier la place problématique de l’oral dans le système éducatif haïtien. Les résultats des analyses montrent une inégalité de réussite scolaire, professionnelle et universitaire, à cause de l’inadéquation et de la rupture entre les pratiques linguistiques scolaires et extrascolaires. Une démarche pragmatique est préconisée pour une didactique de l’oral haïtien, à l’aide de fiches techniques, pour tenter d’améliorer les pratiques scolaires en transposant les pratiques ordinaires dans l’enseignement.; De lang prensipal (kreyòl ak fransè) "melanje" nan kontèks entèyaksyon sosyopolitik, entèkominotè ak sosyodidaktik an Ayiti. Peryòd eleksyon prezidansyèl sòti nan lane 2000 rive 2011 yo fè parèt nan diskou piblik dinamik pratik òdinatè "entè-rezolektal" ak konsekans li ki se ensekirite " sosyo-pragma-lengwistik. " Dinamik oral sa a sòti nan listwa zile a ak sosyete plantè yo nan enpozisyon pouvwa kolonyal yo. Sa a vin bay pwoblèm glotopolitik. Sou baz teyori kontèks, apati yon doub ankraj intèyaksyonis ak varyasyionis, tèz sa ap eseye kesyonnen, fè dyagnostik, konprann ak modifye plas pwoblematik oral la nan sistèm edikatif ayisyen an. Rezilta analiz yo montre inegalite nan siksè edikatif, pwofesyonèl ak inivèsitè, akoz inadekwasyon ak blokaj ki genyen ant pratik lengwistik anndan ak andeyò lekòl yo. Yon demach pragmatik defann plas yon didaktik oral ayisyen , gras ak kèk fich teknik , pou amelyore pratik lekòl nan transpozisyon pratik òdinè yo nan ansèyman.

The present paper elaborates on the linguistic status of Canaano-Akkadian. The authors demonstrate that the graphic variations of the glosses that are employed more than once by the same scribe reveal the attitude of the Canaanite scribes towards their mothers tongue: scribes considered the Canaanite language as a lowvariety in contrast to the high status of Akkadian. The result of this empirical study makes it possible to design a model of the sociolinguistic diglossial situation from which Canaano-Akkadian emerged. Given this sociolinguistic origin of the idiom, the authors further analyse Canaano-Akkadian within the framework of language contact phenomenon, detecting in it possible traits typical of pidgins, creoles, koinés, mixed-languages and/or jargons. This review indicates that the scribal code is unable to be categorized by making use of one taxonomical class: rather, it displays properties that are located on the boundary of two categories and/or belong to more than one taxonomical class. As a result, a new – dynamic and partially fuzzy – definition of Canaano-Akkadian is proposed. Accordingly, the tongue is classified as a professional high-status jargon (written and also spoken “indoor”), two-source mixed-language, “soft” koiné of proximate but not mutually intelligibly underlying systems, idiom that, having emerged from diglossia, contributed to a triglossial situation at the scribal centres, and linguistic system with traces of tertiary hybridization typical of pidgins and tendencies present in post-pidgin continua., This article is one result of the research project ‘Native Languages, linguae francae, and Graphics Traditions in Late Bronze Age Syria and Palestine: Three Case Studies (Canaan, Ugarit, Emar)’ (FFI2011-25065), funded by the Spanish Ministry for Economic Affairs and Competitiveness within the National Plan for Scientific Research, Development and Technological Innovation (I+D+I

This thesis presents an acoustic vowel space analysis of F1 and F2 frequencies from 10 speakers of Pijal Media Lengua (PML) and 10 speakers of Imbabura Quichua (IQ). This thesis also provides a brief grammatical discription of PML with insights into contrasts and similarities between Spanish, Quichua and other documented varieties of Media Lengua (ML). ML is typically described as a mixed language with a Quichua morphosyntactic structure where almost all content words are replaced by their Spanish-derived counterparts through the process of relexification. I use mixed effects models to test for statistical significance between PML Spanish-derived vowels and Quichua-derived vowels. The results provide suggestive data for (1) co-existing vowel systems in moderate contact situations and (2) moderate evidence for co-exsiting vowel systems in extreme contact situations. Results also show that PML may be manipulating as many as eight vowels and IQ as many as six.

Gauteng is one of South Africa’s nine provinces, and is representative of a diversity of languages and cultures. It is a linguistic and cultural melting pot with all eleven official languages spoken in the province. Because of the language contact situation in this province, languages tend to influence one another and this results in situations wherein a majority of speakers are bi- or multilingual. Instances of code-switching, code-mixing, and lexical borrowing (or adoption) are also abounding. In Gauteng, young and old black people tend to use black urban speech varieties. Nonstandard black urban speech varieties such as Tsotsitaal and Is’camtho have been studied extensively in South Africa. The study of black urban language varieties in Gauteng, particularly in English, has not received much attention from sociolinguists and has only been discussed in passing by scholars (see Calteaux, 1994). Studies on Tsotsitaal and Is’camtho have attempted to discuss the structure of and reasons for the employment of these varieties. In conducting the research on black youth slang in English, this study is an attempt at contributing to available research on slang in South Africa. Studies on slang have focused on other language groups and regions. However, no attempts have been made at describing the slang of black youth in Gauteng Province, particularly those who are not L1 speakers of English. The present study aims at contributing to the study of non-standard black urban speech varieties such as Tsotsitaal and Is’camtho. The current study tries to provide a sociolinguistic description of the slang used by black youth in Gauteng, who use English as a second language (L2) or additional language (AL). The research begins with definitions and explanations of concepts relevant to the investigation. The study defines such terms as ‘slang’, ‘black’, ‘youth’ and ‘youth culture’ amongst others. The theoretical approach used in this study is also discussed in this section. Black youth slang in English (hereafter referred to as BYSE) in Gauteng (GP) is discussed in relation to other non-standard black urban language varieties such as Tsotsitaal and Is’camtho. This serves to explain how BYSE differs from the two varieties. The functions of slang as outlined by previous researchers on the subject are also discussed, with the intention of using these as a benchmark to the present study. This study used both qualitative and quantitative methods of research. These included a combination of written questionnaires, interviews (group discussions), and personal observations. The two methodologies were necessary in an attempt to arrive at a better comprehension of the slang used by the group under investigation. The data gathered served to investigate the reasons for using slang and the functions the words they employ serve, by looking at the slang as used in particular contexts as well as at the lexical items they employ. The study also looks at how their use of slang tends to draw on the lexicon from other languages spoken in the Province. The data gathered from the written questionnaires was then sent to Statkon, at the University of Johannesburg, for analysis. The researcher further used interviews (group discussions) and personal observations to augment the results from the questionnaires. The researcher adopts the notion of slang as a register according to use and discusses the findings according to Halliday’s theoretical stance of language as social practice (1978). Emphasis is on dimensions such as field, mode and tenor of discourse as relevant to this study in an attempt to explain the contexts of situation in which the youth under investigation use slang. The research also considers other social aspects of language variation as relevant to this study. The study concludes with recommendations on the need for further research on the language of youth. Amongst others is the recommendation it makes about the study of youth language (particularly slang) and its educational implications in the language classroom. Dr. Anne-Marie Beukes

This dissertation documents the emergence of a new language, Light Warlpiri, in the multilingual community of Lajamanu in northern Australia. It then examines the acquisition of Light Warlpiri language, and of the heritage language, Lajamanu Warlpiri, by children. Light Warlpiri has arisen from contact between Lajamanu Warlpiri (a Pama-Nyungan language), Kriol (an English-based creole), and varieties of English. It is a Mixed Language, meaning that none of its source languages can be considered to be the sole parent language. Most verbs and the verbal morphology are from Aboriginal English or Kriol, while most nouns and the nominal morphology are from Warlpiri. The language input to children is complex. Adults older than about thirty speak Lajamanu Warlpiri and code-switch into Aboriginal English or Kriol. Younger adults, the parents of the current cohort of children, speak Light Warlpiri and code-switch into Lajamanu Warlpiri and into Aboriginal English or Kriol. Lajamanu Warlpiri and Light Warlpiri, the two main input languages to children, both indicate A arguments with ergative case-marking (and they share one allomorph of the marker), but Lajamanu Warlpiri includes the marker much more consistently than Light Warlpiri. Word order is variable in both languages. Children learn both languages from birth, but they target Light Warlpiri as the language of their everyday interactions, and they speak it almost exclusively until four to six years of age. Adults and children show similar patterns of ergative marking and word order in Light Warlpiri. But differences between age groups are found in ergative marking in Lajamanu Warlpiri - for the oldest group of adults, ergative marking is obligatory, but for younger adults and children, it is not. Determining when children differentiate between two input languages has been a major goal in the study of bilingual acquisition. The two languages in this study share lexical and grammatical properties, making distinctions between them quite subtle. Both adults and children distribute ergative marking differently in the two languages, but show similar word order patterns in both. However the children show a stronger correlation between ergative marking and word order patterns than do the adults, suggesting that they are spearheading processes of language change. In their comprehension of sentences in both Lajamanu Warlpiri and Light Warlpiri, adults use a case-marking strategy to identify the A argument (i.e. N+erg = A argument, N-erg = O argument). The children are not adult-like in using this strategy at age 5, when they also used a word order strategy, but they gradually move towards being adult-like with increased age.

Michif, a critically endangered Metis mixed language still spoken by an estimated few dozen to a few hundred people across the Canadian Prairie provinces and British Columbia, makes use of two different gender systems: the French sex-based system contrasting masculine and feminine gender, and the Algonquian animacy-based system contrasting animate with inanimate gender. Systems distinguishing both animacy and sex-based gender are typologically rare, and the goal of this paper is to investigate both the productivity of Michif gender across the language, and the consistency (or put another way, the variability) of gender assignment in Michif. The data in this paper comes primarily from a reanalysis of previous research on Michif, with a goal to look at how variability plays a role in gender in Michif, and what this may tell us about gender more broadly. I suggest that we may want to treat gender as a variable phenomenon in the grammar more generally than is traditionally assumed., Le mitchif est une langue menacée parlée aujourd’hui par un nombre incertain de Métis, surtout dans les prairies canadiennes, au Dakota du Nord et en Colombie-Britannique. Cette langue mixte cri-français emploie deux systèmes de genre : le système français basé sur la distinction masculin/féminin et le système algonquin basé sur une distinction animé/non-animé. Les langues qui font de telles distinctions sont rares du point de vue typologique, et le but de cet article est d’étudier la productivité et la variabilité de l’attribution du genre en mitchif. Les données discutées proviennent d’une réanalyse de recherche antécédente sur le mitchif pour établir le rôle de la variabilité du genre en mitchif, et pour voir comment les faits en mitchif peuvent nous informer sur les faits sur le genre de façon plus globale. Je suggère que le traitement du genre comme phénomène variable, et non pas figé, pourrait être préférable.