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Aging is a major risk factor for cerebral infarction. Since cellular senescence is intrinsic to aging, we postulated that stroke-induced cellular senescence might contribute to neural dysfunction. Adult male Wistar rats underwent 60-minute middle cerebral artery occlusion and were grouped according to 3 reperfusion times: 24 hours, 3, and 7 days. The major biomarkers of senescence: 1) accumulation of the lysosomal pigment, lipofuscin; 2) expression of the cell cycle arrest markers p21, p53, and p16(INK4a); and 3) expression of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) were investigated in brain samples. Lipofuscin accumulation was scarce at the initial stage of brain damage (24 hours), but progressively increased until it reached massive distribution at 7 days post-ischemia. Lipofuscin granules (aggresomes) were mainly confined to the infarcted areas, that is parietal cortex and adjacent caudate-putamen, which were equally affected. The expression of p21, p53, and p16(INK4a), and that of IL-6, TNF-alpha, and IL-1 beta, was significantly higher in the ischemic hemisphere than in the non-ischemic hemisphere. These data indicate that brain cell senescence develops during acute ischemic infarction and suggest that the acute treatment of ischemic stroke might be enhanced using senolytic drugs.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a potential endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) and adventitium- or adipocyte-derived relaxing factor (ADRF) which vasorelaxant action is mediated by potassium channels. H2S could also play an important role in the pathophysiology of diabetic cardiovascular complications. The present study has investigated the influence of alloxan-induced diabetes on the role of potassium channels mediating the relaxant response of the rabbit carotid artery to NaHS, a donor of H2S. NaHS (10−8-3 × 10−5 M) relaxed phenylephrine-precontracted carotid arteries, with higher potency in diabetic than in control rabbits. The selective blockers of potassium channels charybdotoxin, 4-amynopiridine and glibenclamide significantly inhibited the relaxant action of NaHS in diabetic rabbits, but not in control rabbits. When compared to control rabbits, carotid arteries from diabetic rabbits showed significantly reduced expression of big conductance Ca+2-activated potassium channels (BKCa), significantly enhanced expression of intermediate conductance Ca+2-activated potassium channels (IKCa) and not significant different expression of voltage-sensitive potassium channels (KV) and ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP). These results suggest that an enhanced role of IKCa, KV and KATP potassium channels could be involved in the increased sensitivity of the rabbit carotid artery to H2S in diabetes.

Cerebral ischemia is a devastating disease that affects many people worldwide every year. The neurodegenerative damage as a consequence of oxygen and energy deprivation, to date, has no known effective treatment. The ischemic insult is followed by an inflammatory response that involves a complex interaction between inflammatory cells and molecules which play a role in the progression towards cell death. However, there is presently a matter of controversy over whether inflammation could either be involved in brain damage or be a necessary part of brain repair. The inflammatory response is triggered by inflammasomes, key multiprotein complexes that promote secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. An early event in post-ischemic brain tissue is the release of certain molecules and reactive oxygen species (ROS) from injured neurons which induce the expression of the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), a transcription factor involved in the activation of the inflammasome. There are conflicting observations related to the role of NF-κB. While some observe that NF-κB plays a damaging role, others suggest it to be neuroprotective in the context of cerebral ischemia, indicating the need for additional investigation. Here we discuss the dual role of the major inflammatory signaling pathways and provide a review of the latest research aiming to clarify the relationship between NF-κB mediated inflammation and neuronal death in cerebral ischemia.

As the knowledge on the estrogenic system in the brain grows, the possibilities to modulate it in order to afford further neuroprotection in brain damaging disorders so do it. We have previously demonstrated the ability of the selective estrogen receptor modulator, bazedoxifene (BZA), to reduce experimental ischemic brain damage. The present study has been designed to gain insight into the molecular mechanisms involved in such a neuroprotective action by investigating: 1) stroke-induced apoptotic cell death; 2) expression of estrogen receptors (ER) ERα, ERβ and the G-protein coupled estrogen receptor (GPER); and 3) modulation of MAPK/ ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways. For comparison, a parallel study was done with 17β-estradiol (E2)- treated animals. Male Wistar rats subject to transient right middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO, intraluminal thread technique, 60 min), were distributed in vehicle-, BZA- (20.7 ± 2.1 ng/mL in plasma) and E2- (45.6 ± 7.8 pg/mL in plasma) treated groups. At 24 h from the onset of tMCAO, RT-PCR, Western blot and histochemical analysis were performed on brain tissue samples. Ischemia-reperfusion per se increased apoptosis as assessed by both caspase-3 activity and TUNEL-positive cell counts, which were reversed by both BZA and E2. ERα and ERβ expression, but not that of GPER, was reduced by the ischemic insult. BZA and E2 had different effects: while BZA increased both ERα and ERβ expression, E2 increased ERα expression but did not change that of ERβ. Both MAPK/ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt pathways were stimulated under ischemic conditions. While BZA strongly reduced the increased p-ERK1/2 levels, E2 did not. Neither BZA nor E2 modified ischemia-induced increase in p-Akt levels. These results show that modulation of ERα and ERβ expression, as well as of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway accounts, at least in part, for the inhibitory effect of BZA on the stroke-induced apoptotic cell death. This lends mechanistic support to the consideration of BZA as a potential neuroprotective drug in acute ischemic stroke treatment., Supported in part by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (RETICS networks INVICTUS (RD12/0014/ 0004) and INVICTUS+ (RD16/0019/0008), as well as grant PI12/ 00145) and by Conselleria d' Educació, Investigació, Cultura i Esport – GVA (grant GV/2015/133).

Including sex is of paramount importance in preclinical and clinical stroke researches, and molecular studies dealing in depth with sex differences in stroke pathophysiology are needed. To gain insight into the molecular sex dimorphism of ischaemic stroke in rat cerebral cortex, male and female adult rats were subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. The expression of neuroglobin (Ngb) and other functionally related molecules involved in sex steroid signalling (oestrogen and androgen receptors), steroidogenesis (StAR, TSPO and aromatase) and autophagic activity (LC3B-II/LC3B-I ratio, UCP2 and HIF-1 alpha) was assessed in the ipsilateral ischaemic and contralateral non-ischaemic hemispheres. An increased expression of Ngb was detected in the injured female cerebral cortex. In contrast, increased expression of oestrogen receptor alpha, GPER, StAR, TSPO and UCP2, and decreased androgen receptor expression were detected in the injured male cortex. In both sexes, the ischaemic insult induced an upregulation of LC3B-II/-I ratio, indicative of increased autophagy. Therefore, the cerebral cortex activates both sex-specific and common molecular responses with neuroprotective potential after ischaemia-reperfusion, which globally results in similar stroke outcome in both sexes. Nonetheless, these different potential molecular targets should be taken into account when neuroprotective drugs aiming to reduce brain damage in ischaemic stroke are investigated.

We have previously shown that the selective estrogen receptor modulator, bazedoxifene, improves the consequences of ischemic stroke. Now we aimed to characterize the effects and mechanisms of action of bazedoxifene in cerebral arteries. Male rabbit isolated basilar arteries were used for isometric tension recording and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Bazedoxifene relaxed cerebral arteries, as 17-β-estradiol, 4,4',4″-(4-propyl-[1H]-pyrazole-1,3,5-triyl)trisphenol [estrogen receptor (ER) α agonist], and G1 [G protein-coupled ER (GPER) agonist] did it (4,4',4″-(4-propyl-[1H]-pyrazole-1,3,5-triyl)trisphenol > bazedoxifene = G1 > 17-β-estradiol). 2,3-Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionitrile (ERβ agonist) had no effect. Expression profile of genes encoding for ERα (ESR1), ERβ (ESR2), and GPER was GPER > ESR1 > ESR2. As to the endothelial mechanisms, endothelium removal, N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, and indomethacin, did not modify the relaxant responses to bazedoxifene. As to the K channels, both a high-K medium and the Kv blocker, 4-aminopyridine, inhibited the bazedoxifene-induced relaxations, whereas tetraethylammonium (nonselective K channel blocker), glibenclamide (selective KATP blocker) or iberiotoxin (selective KCa blocker) were without effect. Bazedoxifene also inhibited both Ca- and Bay K8644-elicited contractions. Therefore, bazedoxifene induces endothelium-independent relaxations of cerebral arteries through (1) activation of GPER and ERα receptors; (2) increase of K conductance through Kv channels; and (3) inhibition of Ca entry through L-type Ca channels. Such a profile is compatible with the beneficial effects of estrogenic compounds (eg, SERMs) on vascular function and, specifically, that concerning the brain. Therefore, bazedoxifene could be useful in the treatment of cerebral disorders in which the cerebrovascular function is compromised (eg, stroke).

Because neuroprotection in stroke should be revisited in the era of recanalisation, the present study analysed the potential neuroprotective effect of the selective oestrogen receptor modulator, bazedoxifene acetate (BZA), in an animal model of diabetic ischaemic stroke that mimics thrombectomy combined with adjuvant administration of a putative neuroprotectant. Four weeks after induction of diabetes (40 mg kg

Preclinical and clinical studies support a promising, albeit not definitive, neuroprotective effect of emergent uric acid (UA) administration in ischemic stroke. We assessed the effects of UA in an ischemic stroke model relevant to the current treatment paradigm of mechanical thrombectomy within the STAIR/RIGOR recommendations. A cohort of male and female Wistar rats was subjected to ischemic stroke with mechanical recanalization under physiological monitoring. The effects of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) with adjunctive UA (IV, 16 mg/kg) or vehicle treatment were assessed at 24 h and 7 days. Outcomes included neurofunctional impairment, brain infarct (TTC staining, MRI imaging and cresyl violet staining) and edema. At 24 h after tMCAO, neurofunctional scores and brain infarct were significantly reduced in rats subjected to UA treatment compared to vehicle, with a selective effect of UA on cortical infarct. No differential effect of UA between male and female rats was evidenced, as no significant interaction of sex with stroke outcomes was found. Rats achieving higher reperfusion levels after tMCAO showed superior reduction of neurofunctional impairment, cortical infarct and edema by UA. After a 7-day follow-up, male rats subjected to UA treatment still showed reductions in neurofunctional impairment and infarct size, compared to vehicle treatment. In conclusion, UA treatment immediately after transient ischemia results in a sex-independent, maintained reduction of brain damage and neurological impairment, better manifested in hyperperfusion conditions. This synergistic effect of UA with mechanical recanalization supports additional clinical testing of UA as an adjunctive treatment to mechanical thrombectomy. (C) 2018 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Diabetic nephropathy is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) plays an important role in cardiovascular pathophysiology and therapeutics. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of experimental diabetes on the mechanisms that regulate the relaxant response of the rabbit renal artery to BNP. Arterial relaxations to BNP were enhanced in diabetic rabbits. Indomethacin enhanced BNP-induced relaxation in control rabbits but showed no effect in diabetic rabbits. BNP-induced release of thromboxane A(2) or prostacyclin was not different in both groups of animals. Iberiotoxin had no effect on relaxations to BNP in both groups of animals. Charybdotoxin displaced to the right the concentration-response curve to BNP in both group of animals, and inhibited BNP-induced relaxation only in diabetic rabbits. Glibenclamide did not modify the BNP-induced relaxations in control rabbits, but inhibited it in diabetic rabbits. These results suggest that diabetes induces hypereactivity of the rabbit renal artery to BNP by mechanisms that at least include (1) a reduced vasoconstrictor influence of arachidonic acid metabolites via cyclooxygenase 2, which is not related with changes in thromboxane A(2) and prostacyclin release from the arterial wall and (2) a selectively increased modulatory activity of K-ATP and endothelial IKCa channels.

Along with its role in regulating blood pressure and fluid homeostasis, the natriuretic peptide system could be also part of an endogenous protective mechanism against brain damage. We aimed to assess the possibility that exogenous atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) could protect against acute ischemic stroke, as well as the molecular mechanisms involved. Three groups of rats subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO, intraluminal filament technique, 60 min) received intracerebroventricular vehicle, low-dose ANP (0.5 nmol) or high-dose ANP (2.5 nmol), at 30 min reperfusion. Neurofunctional condition, and brain infarct and edema volumes were measured at 24 h after tMCAO. Apoptotic cell death and expression of natriuretic peptide receptors (NPR-A and NPR-C), K+ channels (KATP, KV and BKCa), and PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK1/2 signaling pathways were analyzed. Significant improvement in neurofunctional status, associated to reduction in infarct and edema volumes, was shown in the high-dose ANP group. As to the molecular mechanisms analyzed, high-dose ANP: 1) reduced caspase-3-mediated apoptosis; 2) did not modify the expression of NPR-A and NPR-C, which had been downregulated by the ischemic insult; 3) induced a significant reversion of ischemia-downregulated KATP channel expression; and 4) induced a significant reversion of ischemia-upregulated pERK2/ERK2 expression ratio. In conclusion, ANP exerts a significant protective role in terms of both improvement of neurofunctional status and reduction in infarct volume. Modulation of ANP on some molecular mechanisms involved in ischemia-induced apoptotic cell death (KATP channels and MAPK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway) could account, at least in part, for its beneficial effect. Therefore, ANP should be considered as a potential adjunctive neuroprotective agent improving stroke outcome after successful reperfusion interventions.

Brain preconditioning (PC) refers to a state of transient tolerance against a lethal insult that can be evoked by a prior mild event. It is thought that PC may induce different pathways responsible for neuroprotection, which may involve the attenuation of cell damage pathways, including the apoptotic cell death. In this context, p53 is a stress sensor that accumulates during brain ischemia leading to neuronal death. The murine double minute 2 gene (MDM2), a p53-specific E3 ubiquitin ligase, is the main cellular antagonist of p53, mediating its degradation by the proteasome. Here, we study the role of MDM2-p53 pathway on PC-induced neuroprotection both in cultured neurons (in vitro) and rat brain (in vivo). Our results show that PC increased neuronal MDM2 protein levels, which prevented ischemia-induced p53 stabilization and neuronal death. Indeed, PC attenuated ischemia-induced activation of the p53/PUMA/caspase-3 signaling pathway. Pharmacological inhibition of MDM2-p53 interaction in neurons abrogated PC-induced neuroprotection against ischemia. Finally, the relevance of the MDM2-p53 pathway was confirmed in rat brain using a PC model in vivo. These findings demonstrate the key role of the MDM2-p53 pathway in PC-induced neuroprotection against a subsequent ischemic insult and poses MDM2 as an essential target in ischemic tolerance., This work was funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III Grants CP14/00010 (M.D.-E.); PI12/00685, PI15/00473 and RD12/0014/0007 (A.A.); and RD12/0014/0004 (J.B.S.); and the European Regional Development Fund. R.V. was funded by Grants from the Junta de Castilla y Leon and Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad.

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is a vasodilator with significant regional differences and controversial effects in the cerebral circulation, a vascular bed particularly prone to diabetes-induced complications. The present study has investigated how alloxan-induced diabetes modifies the mechanisms involved in the response of the rabbit basilar artery to ANP. ANP (10(-12) -10(-7) M) relaxed precontracted basilar arteries, with higher potency in diabetic than in control rabbits. In arteries from both groups of animals, endothelium removal reduced ANP-induced relaxations. Inhibition of NO-synthesis attenuated ANP-induced relaxation but this attenuation was lower in diabetic than in control rabbits. In control rabbits, indomethacin displaced to the left the concentration-response curve to ANP, without significantly modifying the E-max value. In diabetic rabbits, indomethacin significantly enhanced arterial relaxations to ANP. In KCl-depolarised arteries, relaxation to ANP was almost abolished both in control and in diabetic rabbits. Iberiotoxin inhibited relaxations to ANP in both groups of rabbits. Glibenclamide and 4-aminopyridine inhibited the ANP-induced relaxations more in diabetic than in control rabbits. Basilar arteries from diabetic rabbits showed decreased natriuretic peptide receptor C expression and no changes in natriuretic peptide receptor A, large conductance calcium-activated K+ channels (BKCa), ATP-sensitive K+ channels (KATP) and voltage-sensitive K+ channels (K-V) expression. These results suggest that diabetes enhances the sensitivity of the rabbit basilar artery to ANP by mechanisms that at least include reduced expression of natriuretic peptide receptor C, and enhanced activity of KATP and KV channels. Furthermore, diabetes reduces endothelial NO and prostacyclin which mediate arterial relaxation to ANP.

While the estrogen treatment of stroke is under debate, selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) arise as a promising alternative. We hypothesize that bazedoxifene (acetate, BZA), a third generation SERM approved for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, reduces ischemic brain damage in a rat model of transient focal cerebral ischemia. For comparative purposes, the neuroprotective effect of 17β-estradiol (E2) has also been assessed. Male Wistar rats underwent 60min middle cerebral artery occlusion (intraluminal thread technique), and grouped according to treatment: vehicle-, E2- and BZA-treated rats. Optimal plasma concentrations of E2 (45.6±7.8pg/ml) and BZA (20.7±2.1ng/ml) were achieved 4h after onset of ischemia, and maintained until the end of the procedure (24h). Neurofunctional score and volume of the damaged brain regions were the main end points. At 24h after ischemia-reperfusion, neurofunctional examination of the animals did not show significant differences among the three experimental groups. By contrast, both E2- and BZA-treated groups showed significantly lower total infarct volumes, BZA acting mainly in the cortical region and E2 acting mainly at the subcortical level. Our results demonstrate that: (1) E2 at physiological plasma levels in female rats is neuroprotective in male rats when given at the acute stage of the ischemic challenge and (2) BZA at clinically relevant plasma levels mimics the neuroprotective action of E2 and could be, therefore, a candidate in stroke treatment.

We evaluated the effect of the long-term intake of a bovine lactoferrin hydrolysate enriched in low molecular weight peptides (LFH in vivo mechanism of action. Male spontaneously hypertensive rats received tap water (negative control), captopril (positive control, 76 mg/kg/day), LFH in vivo mechanism for the antihypertensive effect of long-term oral administration of LFH

We tested the hypothesis that the phytoestrogen genistein protects the brain against ischemic stroke by improving the circulatory function in terms of reduced production of thromboxane A2 and leukocyte–platelet aggregates, and of preserved vascular reactivity. Ischemia-reperfusion (90 min-3 days, intraluminal filament) was induced in male Wistar rats, and functional score and cerebral infarct volume were the end points examined. Genistein (10 mg/kg/day) or vehicle (β-cyclodextrin) was administered at 30 min after ischemia or sham-operation. Production of thromboxane A2 and leukocyte–platelet aggregates, as well as reactivity of carotid artery to U-46619 (thromboxane A2 analogue) and to platelet releasate was measured. At 3 days post-ischemia, both improvement in the functional examination and reduction in the total infarct volume were shown in the ischemic genistein-treated group. Genistein significantly reverted both the increased thromboxane A2 concentration and the increased leukocyte–platelet aggregates production found in samples from the ischemic vehicle-treated group. Both U-46619 and platelet releasate elicited contractions of the carotid artery, which were significantly lower in the ischemic vehicle-treated group. Genistein significantly restored both the decreased U-46619- and the decreased platelet releasate-elicited contractile responses. In conclusion, genistein protects the brain against an ischemia-reperfusion challenge, at least in part, by its beneficial effects on the circulatory function.

The relation between diabetes and stroke is bidirectional: diabetes is an important risk factor for ischemic stroke, and acute stroke frequently induces hyperglycemia. On the other hand, plasma B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels are raised in diabetes and stroke. The purpose was to study how alloxan-induced diabetes might modify the effects of BNP in rabbit carotid arteries and the mechanisms involved in such actions. To do this, isometric tension in isolated rabbit carotid artery was recorded and prostanoids release and plasma NT-proBNP were measured by enzyme immunoassay. BNP induced a relaxation of phenylephrine-precontracted carotid arteries, and this relaxation was lower in diabetic than in control rabbits. Endothelium removal did not modify the relaxation to BNP in control rabbits but increased this relaxation in diabetic rabbits. In control rabbits, indomethacin inhibited the BNP-induced relaxation in the presence and in the absence of endothelium. In diabetic rabbits, indomethacin did not modify the BNP-induced relaxation in arteries with endothelium and inhibited it in arteries without endothelium. In the presence of BNP the carotid artery released thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin, and the release of endothelial prostacyclin was inhibited in diabetic rabbits. Glibenclamide and 4-aminopyridine inhibited the relaxation to BNP, and these inhibitions were lower in diabetic than in control rabbits. In conclusion, our results provide a new understanding concerning the mechanisms of the diabetes-induced hyporeactivity of the carotid artery to BNP, that at least include the loss of endothelial prostacyclin and a reduced participation of ATP-sensitive K(+) channels (KATP) and voltage-sensitive K(+) channels (KV).

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) plays an important role in the pathophysiology of the vascular complications in diabetes. The working hypothesis was that diabetes might modify the vascular actions of ANP in isolated rabbit carotid arteries and the mechanisms involved in these actions. ANP (10 −12 –10 −7 M) induced a relaxation of precontracted carotid arteries, which was lower in diabetic than in control rabbits. In arteries from both groups of animals, endothelium removal increased the ANP-induced relaxation. Isatin inhibited the relaxation to ANP both in arteries with and without endothelium. Carotid arteries from diabetic rabbits showed a decreased natriuretic peptide receptor (NPR)-A expression and an enhanced NPR-C expression. Inhibition of NO-synthesis did not modify ANP-induced relaxation in control rabbits but inhibited it in diabetic rabbits. In arteries with endothelium indomethacin enhanced the relaxation to ANP in control rabbits but did not modify it in diabetic rabbits. In endothelium-denuded arteries indomethacin inhibited the relaxation to ANP in both groups of animals. In KCl-depolarised arteries, relaxation to ANP was almost abolished both in control and diabetic rabbits. Tetraethylammonium inhibited the relaxation to ANP, and this inhibition was higher in diabetic than in control rabbits. These results suggest that diabetes produces hyporeactivity of the rabbit carotid artery to ANP by a mechanism that at least includes a reduced expression of NPR-A, an enhanced expression of NPR-C and a reduced participation of K + -channels. Furthermore, diabetes enhances endothelial NO release and diminishes the ratio thromboxane A 2 /prostacyclin. This increase of vasodilators could result from compensatory mechanisms counteracting the arterial hyporeactivity to ANP.

The aim of this study was to assess the role of K(+) and Ca(2+) fluxes in the cerebroarterial vasoactive effects of the phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor sildenafil. We used isolated rabbit basilar arteries to assess the effects of extracellular K(+) raising on sildenafil-induced vasodilatation, and studied the pharmacological interaction of sildenafil with selective modulators of membrane K(+) and Ca(2+) channels. Expression of Kv1 subunits of K(+) channels was assessed at messenger and protein levels. Parallel experiments were carried out with zaprinast for comparison. Sildenafil (10 nM-0.1 mM) induced concentration-dependent relaxation of endothelin-1 (10 nM)-precontracted arteries, which was partially inhibited by depolarization with KCl (50 mM), 3 mM tetraethylammonium (non-selective K(+) channel blocker) or 1 mM aminopyridine (inhibitor of K(v) channels), but not by 1 microM glibenclamide (inhibitor of K(ATP) channels) or 50 nM iberiotoxin (inhibitor of K(Ca) channels). Arterial smooth muscle expressed messengers for Kv1.2, Kv1.3, Kv1.4, Kv1.5 and Kv1.6, and proteins of Kv1.1, Kv1.2 and Kv1.4. CaCl(2) (10 microM- 10 mM) induced concentration-dependent contraction in Ca(2+)-free, depolarizing (50 mM KCl) medium. Sildenafil (0.1-100 microM) produced reversible concentration-dependent inhibition of the response to CaCl(2), which was completely abolished by the highest sildenafil concentration. By contrast, only 100 microM zaprinast inhibited the response to CaCl(2). The L-type Ca(2+) channel activator Bay K 8644 (0.1 nM-1 microM) induced concentration-dependent potentiation of the response to CaCl(2) inhibited by 100 microM sildenafil. Moreover, Bay K 8644 (0.1 nM-1 microM) induced concentration-dependent contraction in slightly depolarizing (15 mM) medium, which was inhibited to the same extent and in a concentration-dependent way by sildenafil (0.1-100 microM) and zaprinast (1 or 100 microM). These results show that sildenafil relaxes the rabbit basilar artery by increasing K(+) efflux through K(v) channels, which in turn may affect Ca(2+) signalling. Expression of Kv1 subunits involved in this pharmacological effect occurs at the messenger and, in some cases, at the protein level. In addition to this phosphodiesterase-5-related effect, sildenafil and zaprinast inhibit cerebroarterial vasoconstriction at least in part by directly blocking L-type Ca(2+) channels, although a decrease in the sensitivity of the contractile apparatus to Ca(2+) can not be discarded.

The inhibitory effect of a pepsin hydrolysate of bovine lactoferrin (LFH) on angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) has been examined using in vitro and ex vivo functional assays. In vitro assays showed a LFH inhibitory effect on ACE activity with an IC 50 value of 0.95±0.06 mg mL −1 . Ex vivo functional assays using rabbit carotid artery segments showed a LFH inhibitory effect on ACE-dependent angiotensin I-induced contraction, but not on angiotensin II-induced contraction, suggesting that the effect of LFH is not due to antagonism of receptors for angiotensin II. LFH was shown to possess ACE inhibitory effect with potential to modulate hypertension, although the possible inhibitory effect of LFH on angiotensinases deserves further research.

Phospholipase A2s (PLA2s) seem to be involved in the pathophysiology of ischemic brain injury, but their specific role is far from being completely understood. The present study was carried out to ascertain how and to what extent secretory PLA2s (sPLA2s) activity influences outcome after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, and to correlate this with the inflammatory response. To do this we used the potent and selective sPLA2 inhibitor, 12-epi-scalaradial. Male Wistar rats were separated into three groups: a control group receiving intracerebroventricular vehicle, and two groups receiving intracerebroventricular 0.005 or 0.5 microg/h 12-epi-scalaradial. Every animal was subjected to middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion (90 min, intraluminal thread technique) under continuous moni-torization of cerebrocortical perfusion (CP, laser-Doppler flowmetry), followed by reperfusion (3 days). Neurological status, infarct volume, and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity were the main end points. Three days after the 90-min ischemia period, neurological examination did not reveal significant differences between the three groups of rats. Control rats showed a mean infarct volume of 145.9 +/- 24.7 mm3 (21 +/- 4.1% of the ipsilateral hemisphere volume), while mean infarct volume in rats treated with 0.005 or 0.5 microg/h 12-epi-scalaradial increased to 164.8 +/- 86.8 mm3 (22.0 +/- 10.9%) and 211.5 +/- 12.2 mm3 (28 +/- 3%, P0.05), respectively. Treatment with the highest dose of 12-epi-scalaradial (0.5 microg/h) increased MPO activity in the ipsilateral hemisphere by about 140% (from 0.59 +/- 0.59 to 1.42 +/- 1.03 units of activity/g of tissue in comparison with the control ischemic hemisphere, P0.05). Overall, our results point to a positive rather than a negative influence of sPLA2 activity during ischemia. This, along with its inability to decrease the inflammatory response, does not allow to propose the use of 12-epi-scalardial as a potential drug for stroke therapy.

A selection of lactoferricin B (LfcinB)-related peptides with an angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory effect have been examined using in vitro and ex vivo functional assays. Peptides that were analyzed included a set of sequence-related antimicrobial hexapeptides previously reported and two representative LfcinB-derived peptides. In vitro assays using hippuryl-L-histidyl-L-leucine (HHL) and angiotensin I as substrates allowed us to select two hexapeptides, PACEI32 (Ac-RKWHFW-NH 2 ) and PACEI34 (Ac-RKWLFW-NH 2 ), and also a LfcinB-derived peptide, LfcinB 17-31 (Ac-FKCR-RWQWRMKKLGA-NH 2 ). Ex vivo functional assays using rabbit carotid arterial segments showed PACEI32 (both D- and L-enantiomers) and LfcinB 17-31 have inhibitory effects on ACE-dependent angiotensin I-induced contraction. None of the peptides exhibited in vitro ACE inhibitory activity using bradykinin as the substrate. In conclusion, three bioactive lactoferricin-related peptides exhibit inhibitory effects on both ACE activity and ACE-dependent vasoconstriction with potential to modulate hypertension that deserves further investigation.

We hypothesized that sildenafil, inhibitor of phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5), interacts with the nitric oxide (NO)-cGMP pathway in the cerebral arteries and shows vasoactive effects. To prove it in the isolated rabbit basilar artery, we compared the effects of sildenafil with other PDE-5 inhibitors, assessed the endothelial dependence of the vasoactive responses, and used modulators of the cGMP and cAMP signaling processes. Sildenafil (10 nM-0.1 mM) induced concentration-dependent relaxations of endothelin-1 (10 nM)-precontracted basilar artery, which were partially inhibited both in endothelium-denuded arteries and in arteries precontracted by depolarization with KCl (50 mM). Endothelin-1 (1 pM-30 nM) induced concentration-dependent contractions that were inhibited by sildenafil (0.1-100 microM). Zaprinast (10 nM-0.1 mM) and MBCQ (1 nM-0.1 mM), PDE-5 inhibitors, induced concentration-dependent relaxations with lower and higher potency than sildenafil, respectively. Sildenafil-induced relaxation was inhibited in arteries preincubated with the NO synthase inhibitor L-NAME (0.1 mM) or the soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor ODQ (10 microM). Preincubation with sildenafil (0.1 microM) enhanced the relaxations induced by acetylcholine (0.1 nM-0.1 mM) and the NO donor sodium nitroprusside (0.1 nM-0.1 mM), but not those induced by the cell-permeable cGMP analogue 8-Br-cGMP (1 nM-0.1 mM) and the adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin (0.1 nM-10 microM). These results show that sildenafil has vasoactive effects in isolated cerebral arteries. By enhancing the NO-cGMP signaling pathway in the cerebrovascular wall, sildenafil induces vasodilation, prevents vasoconstriction, and potentiates the effect of other NO-dependent vasodilators.

Background and purpose. It has been shown that the reversed operation of glutamate transporters when ATP levels fall accounts for most glutamate release induced by severe cerebral ischemia. Nitric oxide (NO) is formed after ischemia and causes ATP depletion. Our purpose is to test if NO release from inducible NO synthase (iNOS) after stroke may cause a delayed glutamate release due to ATP depletion that might underlie progression of the ischemic infarct. We have studied the effect of the highly selective inhibitor of iNOS activity 1400W on brain ATP levels, extracellular glutamate, and stroke outcome after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Methods. To induce focal ischemia, the middle cerebral artery (MCA) was occluded by using the intraluminal thread technique (tMCAO). 1400W was administered, after tMCAO, by using an Alzet® osmotic pump to yield a drug delivery rate of 2.5 mg/kg/h. Results. Postischemic treatment with 1400W induced a reduction in the neurofunctional impairment and in the total volume of brain infarct. Western blot analysis showed ischemia-induced expression of iNOS. Treatment with 1400W partially prevented delayed ATP reduction and produced inhibition of the subsequent delayed increase in glutamate levels caused by the ischemic insult. Conclusions. Our data indicate that 1400W improves stroke outcome, an effect concomitant to the inhibition of both ischemia-induced decrease in brain ATP levels and increase in glutamate release. These results provide evidence indicating that the expression of iNOS induced by ischemia may contribute to the progression of the ischemic infarct and have important therapeutic implications for the management of stroke.

Oxygen free radicals have been involved in the pathophysiology of cerebral ischemia, especially after spontaneous or thrombolytic reperfusion. In this study with rats, we have combined a severe focal ischemic insult (2 h) and a prolonged reperfusion time (7 days) to assess the possible sustained neuroprotective effect of ebselen (10 or 100 mg/kg), a small, lipophilic organoselenium compound which mimics glutathione peroxidase. Parietal cortical perfusion was measured by laser-Doppler flowmetry, and focal cerebral ischemia was carried out by the intraluminal thread method. We have measured plasma selenium levels, brain reduced glutathione levels, as a marker of oxidative stress, and infarct volume associated with cerebral ischemia. Focal ischemia did not alter reduced glutathione levels, while 60 min reperfusion following ischemia induced a significant (P0.05) decrease in reduced glutathione levels of the ipsilateral hemisphere. Pretreatment with ebselen, which induced significant (P0.05) increase in plasma selenium levels, did not significantly alter the decrease in reduced glutathione levels. The ischemic insult induced 30% mortality on average, with deaths always occurring within 12-48 h. Surviving rats suffered up to 25% body weight loss 1 week after the ischemic insult. Infarct volumes were 26.8 +/- 4.7% of the hemisphere in placebo-treated rats, 26.6 +/- 3.6% in 10 mg/kg ebselen-treated rats, and 25.6 +/- 6.4% in 100 mg/kg ebselen-treated rats (not significantly different). Single-dose administration of ebselen does not reduce the size of brain infarct resulting from severe focal cerebral ischemia in rats. In contrast to previous studies with relatively earlier endpoints, we have delayed the measurement of infarct volume to 1 week after the ischemic insult.

The ability of a soy-based high-phytoestrogen diet (nutritional intervention) or genistein (pharmacological intervention), to limit ischemic brain damage in Wistar, Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats, has been assessed. As to the nutritional intervention, two groups from each strain received either a phytoestrogen-free (PE-0) or a high-phytoestrogen (PE-600) diet from weaning to adulthood. As to the pharmacological intervention, all animals were fed the standard soy-free AIN-93G diet and subsequently separated into two groups from each strain to receive either pure genistein (aglycone form, 1mg/kg/day intraperitoneal) or vehicle at 30 min reperfusion. After an episode of 90 min ischemia (intraluminal thread procedure) followed by 3 days reperfusion, cerebral infarct volume was measured. Arterial blood pressure (ABP) was significantly higher at the basal stage (just before ischemia) in SHR (140 ± 7 mmHg, n=17, p

Diabetes is associated with increased prevalence of hypertension, cardiovascular and renal disease. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) plays an important role in cardiovascular pathophysiology and is claimed to have cardioprotective and renoprotective effect in diabetic patients. The working hypothesis was that alloxan-induced diabetes might modify the vascular effects of ANP in isolated rabbit renal arteries and the mechanisms involved in such actions. Plasma ANP levels were higher in diabetic rabbits than in control rabbits. ANP (10(-12)-10(-7)M) induced a relaxation of precontracted renal arteries, which was lower in diabetic than in control rabbits. In arteries from both groups of animals, endothelium removal decreased the ANP-induced relaxation but inhibition of NO-synthesis did not modify ANP-induced relaxations. In KCl-depolarised arteries, relaxation to ANP was almost abolished both in control and diabetic rabbits. Tetraethylammonium (TEA) partly inhibited the relaxation to ANP in control rabbits but did not modify it in diabetic rabbits. Glibenclamide and 4-aminopyridine inhibited the relaxation to ANP, and these inhibitions were lower in diabetic than in control rabbits. Indomethacin potentiated the relaxation to ANP, more in control than in diabetic rabbits. In the presence of ANP the renal artery released thromboxane A(2) and prostacyclin, and the release of prostacyclin resulted decreased in diabetic rabbits. The present results suggest that diabetes produces hyporeactivity of the rabbit renal artery to ANP by mechanisms that at least include the reduced modulation by prostacyclin and a lower participation of ATP-sensitive K(+) channel (K(ATP)), voltage-sensitive K(+) channels (K(V)) and TEA-sensitive K(+) channels (K(Ca)).

Background and Purpose-: Ischemic stroke continues to be one of the main causes of death worldwide. Inflammation accounts for a large part of damage in this pathology. The cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) has been proposed to have neuroprotective properties in neurological diseases. Therefore, our aim was to determine the effects of the activation of CB2R on infarct outcome and on ischemia-induced brain expression of classic and alternative markers of macrophage/microglial activation. Methods-: Swiss wild-type and CB2R knockout male mice were subjected to a permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion. Mice were treated with either a CB2R agonist (JWH-133), with or without a CB2R antagonist (SR144528) or vehicle. Infarct outcome was determined by measuring infarct volume and neurological outcome. An additional group of animals was used to assess mRNA and protein expression of CB2R, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory peptide (MIP)-1α, RANTES, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2, IL-4, IL-10, transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), arginase I, and Ym1. Results-: Administration of JWH-133 significantly improved infarct outcome, as shown by a reduction in brain infarction and neurological impairment. This effect was reversed by the CB2R antagonist and was absent in CB2R knockout mice. Concomitantly, administration of JWH-133 led to a lower intensity of Iba1+ microglia/macrophages and a decrease in middle cerebral artery occlusion-induced gene expression of both classic (IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1, MIP-1α, RANTES, and iNOS) and alternative mediators/markers (IL-10, TGF-β, and Ym1) of microglial/macrophage activation after permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion. Conclusions-: The inhibitory effect of CB2R on the activation of different subpopulations of microglia/macrophages may account for the protective effect of the selective CB2R agonist JWH-133 after stroke. © 2011 American Heart Association. All rights reserved., This work was supported by grants from Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) SAF2009-08145 (M.A.M.), SAF2011-23354 (I.L.), SAF 2008-01106 (J.M.), and from both MICINN and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) grants Consolider CSD2010-00045 (M.A.M.) and Red Neurovascular (RENEVAS) RD06/0026/0005 (I.L.), RD06/0026/0001 (M.T.) and RD06/0026/0006 (M.C.B.). J.G.Z. was supported by the Programme Alban, scholarship No. E07D400805CO. M.S.G.-G. is a predoctoral fellow of the Ministry of Science and Innovation. M.C.B. was supported by a postdoctoral grant from the Spanish Ministry of Health CD07/00236.

The involvement of plasma membrane glutamate transporters (EAATs - excitatory aminoacid transporters) in the pathophysiology of ischemia has been widely studied, but little is known about the role of vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) in the ischemic process. We analyzed the expression of VGLUT1-3 in the cortex and caudate-putamen of rats subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Western blot and immunohistochemistry revealed an increase of VGLUT1 signal in cortex and caudate-putamen until 3 days of reperfusion followed by a reduction 7 days after the ischemic insult. By contrast, VGLUT2 and 3 were drastically reduced. Confocal microscopy revealed an increase in VGLUT2 and 3 immunolabelling in the reactive astrocytes of the ischemic corpus callosum and cortex. Changes in VGLUTs and EAATs expression were differently correlated to neurological deficits. Interestingly, changes in VGLUT1 and EAAT2 expression showed a significant positive correlation in caudate-putamen. Taken together, these results suggest a contribution of VGLUTs to glutamate release in these structures, which could promote neuroblast migration and neurogenesis during ischemic recovery, and a possible interplay with EAATs in the regulation of glutamate levels, at least in the first stages of ischemic recovery.

Phytoestrogens and mycoestrogens are naturally occurring plant and fungus secondary metabolites with estrogen-like structure and/or actions. We aimed to check the hypothesis that phytoestrogens and mycoestrogens, due to their ability to elicit cerebral vasodilation, can induce acute increases in brain blood perfusion. For this purpose, we continuously recorded cerebrocortical perfusion by laser-Doppler flowmetry in anesthetized rats receiving intracarotid infusions (1 mg/kg) of one of the following estrogenic compounds: biochanin A, daidzein, genistein or zearalanone. We have shown the ability of two isoflavone class phytoestrogens (daidzein and biochanin A) and the mycoestrogen zearalanone to induce acute increases in brain blood flow when locally infused into the cerebral circulation of anesthetized rats. The isoflavone genistein failed to induce a significant increase in brain perfusion. No concomitant changes in blood pressure were recorded during the cerebral effects of the estrogenic compounds. Therefore, these microcirculatory effects were due to direct actions of the estrogenic compounds on the cerebrovascular bed.

As phytoestrogens are postulated as being neuroprotectants, we assessed the hypothesis that dietary isoflavone-type phytoestrogens are neuroprotective against ischemic stroke. Transient focal cerebral ischemia (90 min) was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) following the intraluminal thread technique, both in rats fed with soy-based diet and in rats fed with isoflavone-free diet. Cerebro-cortical laser-Doppler flow (cortical perfusion, CP), arterial blood pressure, core temperature, PaO2, PaCO2, pH and glycemia were measured before, during and after MCAO. Neurological examination and infarct volume measurements were carried out 3 days after the ischemic insult. Dietary isoflavones (both glycosides and aglycones) were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. Neither pre-ischemic, intra-ischemic nor post-ischemic CP values were significantly different between the soy-based diet and the isoflavone-free diet groups. Animals fed with the soy-based diet showed an infarct volume of 122 +/- 20.2 mm3 (19 +/- 3.3% of the whole ipsilateral hemisphere volume). In animals fed with the isoflavone-free diet the mean infarct volume was significantly higher, 191 +/- 26.7 mm3 (28 +/- 4.1%, P < 0.05). Neurological examination revealed significantly higher impairment in the isoflavone-free diet group compared with the soy-based diet group (3.3 +/- 0.5 vs. 1.9 +/- 0.5, P < 0.05). These results demonstrate that dietary isoflavones improve stroke outcome after transient focal cerebral ischemia in such a way that a higher dietary isoflavone content results in a lower infarct volume and a better neurological status.

As a previous step to consider their use in the pharmacology for stroke, we investigated the effects of four phytoestrogens (i.e. genistein, daidzein, zearalanone and biochanin A) on cerebral vessels. Cerebral vascular responses were analyzed by conventional recording of isometric tension in rabbit basilar artery segments kept in organ bath under standard conditions. The four phytoestrogens elicited concentration-dependent relaxant responses of different potency in basilar artery segments previously contracted with either 5x10(-2) M KCl or 10(-4) M UTP. Neither endothelium removal, 10(-4) M N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor), 10(-5) M1 H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ, selective inhibitor of NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase), 10(-5) M 4H-8-bromo-1,2,4-oxadiazolo(3,4-d)benz(b)(1,4)oxazin-1-one (NS2028, specific soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor), nor 10(-5) M indomethacin (prostaglandin biosynthesis inhibitor) modified the phytoestrogen-elicited vasorelaxant responses. On the other hand, Ca(2+)-elicited contractile responses were effectively inhibited in the presence of phytoestrogens. Phytoestrogens act as cerebrovascular relaxants by a mechanism which involves Ca(2+) entry blockade in the vascular smooth muscle rather than stimulation of vasorelaxant endothelium-related mechanisms such as NO/cGMP or prostaglandins.

Estrogens could play a cardiovascular protective role not only by means of systemic effects but also by means of direct effects on vascular structure and function. We have studied the acute effects and mechanisms of action of 17-beta-estradiol on vascular tone of rabbit isolated carotid artery. 17-Beta-estradiol (10, 30, and 100 microM) elicited concentration-dependent relaxation of 50 mM KCl-induced active tone in male and female rabbit carotid artery. The stereoisomer 17-alpha-estradiol showed lesser relaxant effects in male rabbits. Endothelium removal did not modify relaxation induced by 17-beta-estradiol. The NO synthase inhibitor L-NAME (100 microM) only reduced significantly relaxation produced by 30 microM 17-beta-estradiol. Relaxation was not modified by the estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780 (1 microM), the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (1 microM), and the selective K(+) channel blockers charybdotoxin (0.1 microM) and glibenclamide (1 microM). CaCl(2) (30 microM -10 mM) induced concentration-dependent contraction in rabbit carotid artery depolarized by 50 mM KCl in Ca(2+) free medium. Preincubation with 17-beta-estradiol (3, 10, 30, or 100 microM) or the L-type Ca(2+) channel blocker nicardipine (0.01, 0.1, 1, or 10 nM) produced concentration-dependent inhibition of CaCl(2)-induced contraction. In conclusion, 17-beta-estradiol induces endothelium-independent relaxation of rabbit carotid artery, which is not mediated by classic estrogen receptor and protein synthesis activation. The relaxant effect is due to inhibition of extracellular Ca(2+) influx to vascular smooth muscle, but activation of K(+) efflux is not involved. Relatively high pharmacological concentrations of estrogen causing relaxation preclude acute vasoactive effects of plasma levels in the carotid circulation.

Estrogens account for gender differences in the incidence and outcome of stroke, but it remains unclear to what extent neuroprotective effects of estrogens are because of parenchymal or vascular actions. Because reproductive steroids have vasoactive properties, the authors assessed the effects and mechanisms of action of 17-β-estradiol in rabbit isolated basilar artery. Cumulative doses of 17-β-estradiol (0.3 μmol/L to 0.1 mmol/L) induced concentration-dependent relaxation that was larger in basilar than carotid artery, in male than female basilar artery, and in KCl-precontracted than UTP-precontracted male basilar artery. Endothelium removal did not modify relaxation induced by 17-β-estradiol in basilar artery, whereas relaxation induced by acetylcholine (1 nmol/L to 0.1 mmol/L) was almost abolished. Neither the estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780 (1 μmol/L), nor the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (1 μmol/L) affected 17-β-estradiol–induced relaxations. Relaxations induced by the K+ channel openers NS1619 and pinacidil in the same concentration range were greater and lower, respectively, when compared with relaxation to 17-β-estradiol, which was not significantly modified by incubation with the K+ channel blockers charybdotoxin (1 nmol/L and 0.1 μmol/L) or glibenclamide (10 nmol/L and 1 μmol/L). Preincubation with 17-β-estradiol (3 to 100 μmol/L) produced concentration-dependent inhibition of CaCl2-induced contraction, with less potency than the Ca2+ entry blocker nicardipine (0.01 to 10 nmol/L). The authors conclude that 17-β-estradiol induces endothelium-independent relaxation of cerebral arteries with tissue and gender selectivity. The relaxant effect is because of inhibition of extracellular Ca2+ influx to vascular smooth muscle, but activation of estrogen receptors, protein synthesis, or K+ efflux are not involved. Relatively high pharmacologic concentrations of 17-β-estradiol causing relaxation preclude acute vascular effects of physiologic circulating levels on the cerebral circulation.

Growth factors promote cell growth and survival and protect the brain from developing injury after ischemia. In this article, the authors examined whether transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α was protective in transient focal ischemia and whether alteration of cerebral circulation was involved. Rats received intraventricular TGF-α (50 ng, either split into 2 doses given 30 minutes before and 30 minutes after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), or 1 dose given 30 minutes after MCAO) or vehicle. Rats were subjected to 1-hour intraluminal MCAO and cerebral blood flow was recorded continuously by laser-Doppler flowmetry. Infarct volume was measured 1 and 4 days later. The effects of TGF-α on arterial tone were assessed in isolated rabbit basilar and common carotid arteries. Transforming growth factor-α before and after ischemia reduced infarct volume by 70% at 1 day and 50% at 4 days. Transforming growth factor-α given only after ischemia also did reduce infarct volume by 70% at 1 day and 80% at 4 days. The protective effect was more marked in cortex than in striatum. Transforming growth factor-α did not change cortical microvascular perfusion and did not modify arterial passive tone nor agonist-induced active tone. It can be concluded that TGF-α reduces infarct volume, even when the factor is exclusively administered at reperfusion, and that this effect is not mediated by changes in microvascular perfusion or cerebral arteries. It is therefore suggested that TGF-α has a protective effect against neuronal cell death after transient focal ischemia., Supported by FIS grant 00/0957. C. Justicia and F.J. Pérez-Asensio are recipients of Ph.D. fellowships from IDIBAPS and MCYT, respectively. M.C. Burguete is supported by CICYT grant SAF98/0033