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Background For multicenter clinical studies, PET/CT and SPECT/CT scanners need to be validated to ensure comparability between various scanner types and brands. This validation is usually performed using hollow phantoms filled with radioactive liquids. In recent years, 3D printing technology has gained increasing popularity for manufacturing of phantoms, as it is cost-efficient and allows preparation of phantoms of almost any shape. So far, however, direct 3D printing with radioactive building materials has not yet been reported. The aim of this work was to develop a procedure for preparation of 99mTc-containing building materials and demonstrate successful application of this material for 3D printing of several test objects. Method The desired activity of a [99mTc]pertechnetate solution eluted from a 99Mo/99mTc-generator was added to the liquid 3D building material, followed by a minute amount of trioctylphosphine. The resulting two-phase mixture was thoroughly mixed. Following separation of the phases and chemical removal of traces of water, the radioactive building material was diluted with the required volume of non-radioactive building material and directly used for 3D printing. Results Using our optimized extraction protocol with trioctylphosphine as complex-forming phase transfer agent, technetium-99m was efficiently transferred from the aqueous 99Mo/99mTc-generator eluate into the organic liquid resin monomer. The observed radioactivity concentration ratio between the organic phase and the water phase was > 2000:1. The radioactivity was homogeneously distributed in the liquid resin monomer. We did not note differences in the 3D printing behavior of the radiolabeled and the unlabeled organic liquid resin monomers. Radio-TLC and SPECT studies showed homogenous 2D and 3D distribution of radioactivity throughout the printed phantoms. The radioactivity was stably bound in the resin, apart from a small amount of surface-extractable radioactivity under harsh conditions (ethanol at 50 °C). Conclusions 3D printing of radioactive phantoms using 99mTc-containing building materials is feasible. Compared to the classical fillable phantoms, 3D printing with radioactive building materials allows manufacturing of phantoms without cold walls and in almost any shape. Related procedures with longer-lived radionuclides will enable production of phantoms for scanner validation and quality control.

Purpose: To evaluate the performance of the Biograph Vision Quadra (Siemens Healthineers) PET/CT system. This new system is based on the Siemens Biograph Vision 600, using the same silicon photomultiplier-based detectors with 3.2��3.2��20-mm lutetium-oxoorthosilicate crystals. The Quadra's 32 detector rings provide a fourfold larger axial field of view (AFOV) of 106 cm, enabling imaging of major organs in one bed position. Methods: Physical performance of the scanner was evaluated according to the National Electrical Manufacturers Association NU 2-2018 standard with additional experiments to characterize energy resolution. Image quality was assessed with foreground to background ratios of 4:1 and 8:1. Additionally, a clinical 18F-FDG-PET study was reconstructed with varying frame durations. In all experiments, data were acquired using the Quadra's maximum ring distance of 322 crystals (MRD 322), while image reconstructions could only be performed with a maximum ring distance of 85 crystals rings (MRD 85). Results: The spatial resolution at full width half maximum in radial, tangential and axial directions were 3.3, 3.4 and 3.8 mm respectively. The sensitivity was 83 cps/kBq for MRD 85 and 176 cps/kBq for MRD 322. The NECRs at peak were 1613 kcps for MRD 85 and 2956 kcps for MRD 322, both at 27.5 kBq/mL. The respective scatter fractions at peak NECR equaled 36 % and 37 %. The TOF resolution at peak NECR was 228 ps for MRD 85 and 230 ps for MRD 322. Image contrast recovery ranged from 69.6% to 86.9 % for 4:1 contrast ratios and from 77.7 % to 92.6 % for 8:1 contrast ratios reconstructed using PSF-TOF with 8 iterations and 5 subsets. Thirty seconds frames provided readable lesion detectability and acceptable noise levels in clinical images. Conclusion: The Biograph Vision Quadra PET/CT has similar spatial and time resolution compared to the Biograph Vision 600 but exhibits improved sensitivity and NECR due to its extended AFOV. The reported spatial resolution, time resolution, and sensitivity makes it a competitive new device in the class of PET-scanners with extended AFOV.

Purpose Image texture is increasingly used to discriminate tissues and lesions in PET/CT. For quantification or in computer-aided diagnosis, textural feature analysis must produce robust and comparable values. Because statistical feature values depend on image count statistics, we investigated in depth the stability of Haralick features values as functions of acquisition duration, and for common image resolutions and reconstructions. Methods A homogeneous cylindrical phantom containing 9.6 kBq/ml Ge-68 was repeatedly imaged on a Siemens Biograph mCT, with acquisition durations ranging from three seconds to three hours. Images with 1.5, 2, and 4 mm isometrically spaced voxels were reconstructed with filtered back-projection (FBP), ordered subset expectation maximization (OSEM), and the Siemens TrueX algorithm. We analysed Haralick features derived from differently quantized (3 to 8-bit) grey level co-occurrence matrices (GLCMs) as functions of exposure E, which we defined as the product of activity concentration in a volume of interest (VOI) and acquisition duration. The VOI was a 50 mm wide cube at the centre of the phantom. Feature stability was defined for df/dE → 0. Results The most stable feature values occurred in low resolution FBPs, whereas some feature values from 1.5 mm TrueX reconstructions ranged over two orders of magnitude. Within the same reconstructions, most feature value-exposure curves reached stable plateaus at similar exposures, regardless of GLCM quantization. With 8-bit GLCM, median time to stability was 16 s and 22 s for FBPs, 18 s and 125 s for OSEM, and 23 s, 45 s, and 76 s for PSF reconstructions, with longer durations for higher resolutions. Stable exposures coincided in OSEM and TrueX reconstructions with image noise distributions converging to a Gaussian. In FBP, the occurrence of stable values coincided the disappearance of negatives image values in the VOI. Conclusions Haralick feature values depend strongly on exposure, but invariance exists within defined domains of exposure. Here, we present an easily replicable procedure to identify said stable exposure domains, where image noise does not substantially add to textural feature values. Only by imaging at predetermined feature-invariant exposure levels and by adjusting exposure to expected activity concentrations, can textural features have a quantitative use in PET/CT. The necessary exposure levels are attainable by modern PET/CT systems in clinical routine.

Purpose Avoiding measurement variability from 18F phantom preparation by using 68Ge/68Ga phantoms for the determination of 18F recovery curves (RC) in clinical quality assurance measurements and for PET/CT site qualification in multicentre clinical trials. Methods RCs were obtained from PET/CT measurements of seven differently sized phantom spheres filled either with 18F or with 68Ga. RCs for the respective other isotope were then determined by two different methods: In the first method, images were convolved with positron range transconvolution functions derived from positron annihilation distributions found in literature. This method generated re-casted images matching images using the respective other isotope. In the second method, the PET/CT system's isotope independent (intrinsic) point spread function was determined from said phantom measurements and convolved with numerical representations simulating hot spheres filled with the respective other isotope. These simulations included the isotope specific positron annihilation distributions. Recovered activity concentrations were compared between re-casted images, simulated images and the originally acquired images. Results 18F and 68Ga recovery was successfully determined from image acquisitions of the respective opposite isotope as well as from the simulations. 68Ga RCs derived from 18F data had a normalized root-mean-square deviation (NRMSD) from real 68Ga measurements of 0.019 % when using the first method and of 0.008 % when using the second method. 18F RCs derived from 68Ga data had a NRMSD from real 18F measurements of 0.036 % when using the first method and of 0.038 % when using the second method. Conclusions Applying the principles of transconvolution, 18F RCs can be recalculated from 68Ga phantom measurements with excellent accuracy. The maximal additionally introduced error was below 0.4% of the error currently accepted for RCs in the site qualification of multicentre clinical trials by the EARL program of the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Therefore, our methods legitimately allow for the use of long-lived solid state 68Ge/68Ga phantoms instead of manually prepared 18F phantoms to characterize comparability of 18F measurements across different imaging sites or of longitudinal18F measurements at a single PET/CT system. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

PURPOSE A PET/CT system's imaging capabilities are best described by its point spread function (PSF) in the spatial domain or equivalently by its modulation transfer function (MTF) in the spatial frequency domain. Knowing PSFs or MTFs is a prerequisite for many numerical methods attempting to improve resolution and to reduce the partial volume effect. In PET/CT, the observed PSF is a convolution of the system's intrinsic imaging capabilities including image reconstruction (PSF0) and the positron range function (PRF) of the imaged β(+) emitting isotope. A PRF describes the non-Gaussian distribution of β(+) annihilation events around a hypothetical point source. The main aim was to introduce a new method for determining a PET/CT system's intrinsic MTF (MTF0) from phantom measurements of hot spheres independently of the β(+) emitting isotope used for image acquisition. Secondary aim was to examine non-Gaussian and nonlinear MTFs of a modern iterative reconstruction algorithm. METHODS PET/CT images of seven phantom spheres with volumes ranging from 0.25 to 16 ml and filled either with (18)F or with (68)Ga were acquired and reconstructed using filtered back projection (FBP). MTFs were modeled with linear splines. The spline fit iteratively minimized the mean squared error between the acquired PET/CT image and a convolution of the thereof derived PSF with a numerical representation of the imaged hot phantom sphere. For determining MTF0, the numerical sphere representations were convolved with a PRF, simulating a fill with either (18)F or (68)Ga. The MTFs determined by this so-called MTF fit method were compared with MTFs derived from point source measurements and also compared with MTFs derived with a previously published PSF fit method. The MTF fit method was additionally applied to images reconstructed by a vendor iterative algorithm with PSF recovery (Siemens TrueX). RESULTS The MTF fit method was able to determine (18)F and (68)Ga dependent MTFs and MTF0 from FBP reconstructed images. Root-mean-square deviation between fit determined MTFs and point source determined MTFs ranged from 0.023 to 0.039. MTFs from Siemens TrueX reconstructions varied with size of the imaged sphere. CONCLUSIONS MTF0 can be determined regardless of the imaged isotope, when using existing PRF models for the MTF fit method presented. The method proves that modern iterative PET/CT reconstruction algorithms have nonlinear imaging properties. This behaviour is not accessible by point source measurements. MTFs resulting from these clinically applied algorithms need to be estimated from objects of similar geometry to those intended for clinical imaging.

Purpose To determine the thyroid clearance effective half-life T with a common handheld electronic dosimeter (ED) in patients undergoing radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. Methods Dose rates from 12 inpatients were measured daily with an ED and with a clinical uptake counter. The ED was attached to the patient with two different setups, one using a cervical collar and another employing a neck strap. Estimation of T was performed by linear regression analysis of the log of both the ED and the uptake counter measurements versus time. The latter provided the reference data. Results Based on repeated neck strap dose rate measurements, individual Ts were determined with clinically required accuracy. The mean difference from the reference method equaled to -0.09 ± 0.35 days. Conclusions Determination of individual T is feasible with a common handheld ED using the simple and easy to instruct neck strap measurement setup. This simple method complements stationary uptake counter measurements and thus may improve the accuracy of radioiodine treatment planning by adding an individual T for dose calculation.

A PET/CT system's imaging capabilities are best described by its point spread function (PSF) in the spatial domain or equivalently by its modulation transfer function (MTF) in the spatial frequency domain. Knowing PSFs or MTFs is a prerequisite for many numerical methods attempting to improve resolution and to reduce the partial volume effect. In PET/CT, the observed PSF is a convolution of the system's intrinsic imaging capabilities including image reconstruction (PSFPET/CT images of seven phantom spheres with volumes ranging from 0.25 to 16 ml and filled either withThe MTF fit method was able to determineMTF

Avoiding measurement variability fromRCs were obtained from PET/CT measurements of seven differently sized phantom spheres filled either withApplying the principles of transconvolution

This article gives an overview of selected high-dose dosimetric methods suitable for use in accelerators in research and medicine for reference, transfer and routine dosimetry. This comprises solid state, glass, plastic and liquid chemical systems as well as ionisation chambers and calorimeters. The dose covered varies from 0.1 Gy to the MGy range. A summary comparing the main characteristics of these dosemeters is also given.