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The growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum) is constrained by soil salinity, although some fungal species have been shown to enhance production in saline environments. The yield of grain crops is affected by salt stress, and this study aimed to investigate how arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) mitigates salt stress. An experiment was conducted to assess the impact of AMF on wheat growth and yield in conditions of 200 mM salt stress. Wheat seeds were coated with AMF at a rate of 0.1 g (108 spores) during sowing. The results of the experiment demonstrated that AMF inoculation led to a significant improvement in the growth attributes of wheat, including root and shoot length, fresh and dry weight of root and shoot. Furthermore, a significant increase in chlorophyll a, b, total, and carotenoids was observed in the S2 AMF treatment, validating the effectiveness of AMF in enhancing wheat growth under salt stress conditions. Additionally, AMF application reduced the negative effects of salinity stress by increasing the uptake of micronutrients such as Zn, Fe, Cu, and Mn while regulating the uptake of Na (decrease) and K (increase) under salinity stress. In conclusion, this study confirms that AMF is a successful strategy for reducing the negative effects of salt stress on wheat growth and yield. However, further investigations are recommended at the field level under different cereal crops to establish AMF as a more effective amendment for the alleviation of salinity stress in wheat.

Limited availability of phosphorus (P) in agricultural soils is a major cause of poor growth and yield of crops throughout the world. Optimization of crops productivity can be achieved by increasing the bioavailability of P via phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB), however, their effectiveness may vary with changing agro-climatic conditions That’s why current experiment was conducted to evaluate the potential of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (with PSB and without PSB) in improving growth and yield of wheat under different P levels (0, 25, 50, and 100 % of recommended P). The PSB with 100% recommended P significantly enhanced wheat tillers m−2, grains spike-1, grains and biological yield compared to the rest of the treatment’s combination. A significant improvement in 100 grains weight and rate of photosynthesis also validated the efficacious functioning of PSB and full recommended P. Furthermore, PSB were effective in optimizing wheat yield attributes at respective P level compared to Without PSB. Our findings imply that, PSB application along with 100% recommended P as inorganic phosphorus has potential to enhance wheat growth and yield over sole application of P fertilizers or PSB.

Micronutrient deficiency in the soil is one of the major causes of mango fruit and yield's poor quality. Besides, the consumption of such a diet also causes a deficiency of micronutrients in humans. Boron deficiency adversely affects the flowering and pollen tube formation, thus decreasing mango yield and quality attributes. Soil and foliar application of B are considered a productive method to alleviate boron deficiency. A field experiment was conducted to explore the Boron most suitable method and application rate in mango under the current climatic scenario. There were nine treatments applied in three replications. The results showed that application of T8 = RD + Borax (75 g plant -1 as a basal application) + H3 BO3 (0.8% as a foliar spray) and T9 = RD + Borax (150 g plant -1 as a basal application) + H3 BO3 (0.8% as a foliar spray) significantly enhanced the nitrogen, potassium, proteins, ash, fats, fiber, and total soluble solids in mango as compared to the control. A significant decrease in sodium, total phenolics contents, antioxidant activity, and acidity as citric acid also validated the effective functioning of T8 = RD + Borax (75 g plant -1 as a basal application) + H3 BO3 (0.8% as a foliar spray) and T9 = RD + Borax (150 g plant -1 as a basal application) + H3 BO3 (0.8% as a foliar spray) as compared to control. In conclusion, T8 = RD + Borax (75 g plant -1 as a basal application) + H3 BO3 (0.8% as a foliar spray) and T9 = RD + Borax (150 g plant -1 as a basal application) + H3 BO3 (0.8% as a foliar spray) is a potent strategy to improve the quality attributes of mango under the changing climatic situation.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are found to be causing the most abundant symbioses between fungi and roots of terrestrial plants. AMF act as a biofertiliser that stimulate plant growth and increase plant productivity under poor soil fertility. In addition, unbalanced application of zinc (Zn) and the antagonistic relationship with phosphorus (P) also play an imperative role in decreasing crop productivity. It is necessary to synchronise Zn application rate with applied inorganic P and AMF to achieve optimum crop yield. For tha purpose, a pot trial was conducted on Zn-deficient soil with five application rates of Zn, i.e. 0, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 mg kg−1. Two levels of inorganic P [0 (P0) and 21 (P1) mg kg−1] were applied with and without AMF inoculation. Results showed that more AMF colonisation was observed under deficient Zn and P conditions. Higher soil Zn (Zn120 and Zn150) significantly decreased the germination rate and plant growth. However, a significant improvement in germination, plant height, biomass, transpiration rate and 100-grain weight validated the productive functioning of AMF over no AMF. AMF inoculation alleviated P-induced Zn deficiency and Zn-induced P deficiency. Application of P0Zn60 and P0Zn30 with and without AMF is a better treatment to maximise wheat growth, yield and gas-exchange attributes in Zn-deficient conditions. It is also recommended to apply low Zn, (30 or 60 mg kg−1 Zn) when AMF is used, with 21 mg kg−1 P, or half of the recommended dose of P.

Cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) yield has plateaued due to reduction in rainfall and rise in temperature. Therefore, its production cycle could not get appropriate water and temperature. It becomes important to standardize the sowing time and plant spacing of cluster beans in changing climate scenarios to get higher productivity. Therefore, a field study was conducted in 2019 at the Research area of MNS-University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan to evaluate the effect of four sowing times (15th May, 1st June, 15th June, and 1st July) and three plant spacings (10, 12 and 15 cm) on crop growth, yield, and physiological functions of cluster bean genotype BR-2017 under split plot arrangement under randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The sowing times (15th May, 1st June, 15th June, and 1st July) were placed in the main plot, while plant spacing (10, 12 and 15 cm) was maintained in subplots. The significant effect of sowing time and plant spacing was observed on pod plant-1, pod length, grain yield, and 1000-grain weight. Results showed that 1st June sowing performed better over 15th May, 15th June, and 1st July, while plant spacing 15 cm about in all sowing times showed higher results on growth and yield parameters of cluster bean over plant spacing 10, 12, and 15 cm. The 1st June sowing time at 15 cm plant spacing showed 8.0, 22.7, and 28.5% higher grains pod-1 than 15th May, 15th June, and 1st July sowing, respectively. Maximum grain yield was observed on 1st June in all three spacings (10, 12, and 15 cm). The chord diagram indicates that the crop has received optimum environmental conditions when sown 1st June over other sowing times. In conclusion, 1st June sowing with 15 cm plant spacing could be a good option to achieve maximum productivity of cluster bean under changing climate scenario.

Toxicity induced by heavy metals deteriorates soil fertility status. It also adversely affects the growth and yield of crops. These heavy metals become part of the food chain when crops are cultivated in areas where heavy metals are beyond threshold limits. Cadmium (Cd) and nickel (Ni) are considered the most notorious ones among different heavy metals. The high water solubility of Cd made it a potential toxin for plants and their consumers. Accumulation of Ni in plants, leaves, and fruits also deteriorates their quality and causes cancer in humans when such a Ni-contaminated diet is used regularly. Both Cd and Ni also compete with essential nutrients of plants, making the fertility status of soil poor. To overcome this problem, the use of activated carbon biochar can play a milestone role. In the recent past application of activated carbon biochar is gaining more and more attention. Biochar sorb the Cd and Ni and releases essential micronutrients that are part of its structure. Many micropores and high cation exchange capacity make it the most acceptable organic amendment to improve soil fertility and immobilize Cd and Ni. In addition to improving water and nutrients, soil better microbial proliferation enhances the soil rhizosphere ecosystem and nutrient cycling. This review has covered Cd and Ni harmful effects on crop yield and their immobilization by activated carbon biochar. The focus was made to elaborate on the positive effects of biochar on crop yield and soil health.

Industrialization and human urbanization have led to an increase in heavy metal (HM) pollution which often cause negative/toxic effect on agricultural crops. The soil-HMs cannot be degraded biologically however, microbe-mediated detoxification of toxic HMs into lesser toxic forms are reported. Considering the potentiality of HMs-tolerant soil microbes in metal detoxification, Pseudomonas fluorescence PGPR-7 and Trichoderma sp. T-4 were recovered from HM-affected areas. Under both normal and cadmium stress, the ability of both microorganisms to produce different plant hormones and biologically active enzymes was examined. Strains PGPR-7 and T-4 tolerated cadmium (Cd) an up-to 1800 and 2000 µg mL−1, respectively, and produced various plant growth regulating substances (IAA, siderophore, ACC deaminase ammonia and HCN) in Cd-stressed condition. The growth promoting and metal detoxifying ability of both strains were evaluated (either singly/combined) by applying them in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) plants endogenously contaminated with different Cd levels (0–400 µg kg−1 soils). The higher Cd concentration (400 µg kg−1 soils) negatively influenced the plant parameters which, however, improved following single/combined inoculation of P. fluorescence PGPR-7 and Trichoderma sp. T-4. Both microbial strains increased the growth of Cd-treated chickpeas however, their combined inoculation (PGPR-7 + T-4) caused the most positive effect. For instance, 25 µg Cd Kg−1 + PGPR-7 + T4 treatment caused maximum increase in germination percentage (10%), root dry biomass (71.4%) and vigour index (33%), chl-a (38%), chl-b (41%) and carotenoid content (52%). Furthermore, combined inoculation of P. fluorescence PGPR-7 and Trichoderma sp. T-4 maximally decreased the proline, MDA content, POD and CAT activities by 50%, 43% and 62%, respectively following their application in 25 µg Cd kg−1 soils-treated chickpea. Additionally, microbial strains lowered the plant uptake of Cd. For example, Cd-uptake in root tissues was decreased by 42 and 34% when 25 µg Cd Kg−1- treated chickpea plants were inoculated with P. fluorescence PGPR-7, Trichoderma sp. T-4 and co-inoculation (PGPR-7 + T4) of both strains, respectively. Therefore, from the current observation, it is suggested that dual inoculation of metal tolerant P. fluorescence and Trichoderma sp. may potentially be used in detoxification and reclamation of metal-contaminated soils.

The history of plants to be utilized as medicines is thousands of years old. Black cumin is one of the most widely examined plant possessing naturally occurring compounds with antimicrobial potential. Foliar application of growth stimulators is a successful strategy to enhance yield and quality in many crops. A field study was planned to apply growth stimulator like moringa leaf extract on black cumin crop grown under field conditions using RCB design with three replications. All other agronomic inputs and practices were uniform. The treatments were moringa leaf extract concentrations (10%, 20%), growth stages (40 days after sowing, 80 DAS, 120 DAS, 40 + 80 DAS, 40 + 120 DAS, 80 + 120 DAS, 40 + 80 + 120 days after sowing) and two controls unsprayed check (i.e. no moringa leaf extract, no water) and sprayed check (no moringa leaf extract + water). Application of 20% moringa leaf extract at stage-7 (40 + 80 + 120 days after sowing) had significantly increased plant height, branches plant−1, essential oil content, fixed oil content, peroxidase value and iodine value of black cumin oil over unsprayed control. Application of moringa leaf extract showed maximum results and improves growth and yield of black cumin when applied at 40 + 80 + 120 days after sowing. As this study was only conducted using moringa leaf extract, it is advisable to conduct an experiment with various bio stimulants along with fertilizer combinations and growth regulators to check their synergistic effects for more reliable and acceptable recommendations in future.

Zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient required to enhance crop growth and yield. In the arid - semiarid region, Zn deficiency is expected due to alkaline calcareous soil. Contrarily, Zn toxicity is also becoming an environmental concern due to increasing anthropogenic activities (metal smelting, copper industry, etc.). Therefore, balanced Zn application is necessary to save resources and achieve optimum crop growth and yield. Most scientists suggest biological approaches to overcome the problem of Zn toxicity and deficiency. These biological approaches are mostly environment-friendly and cost-effective. In these biological approaches, the use of arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi (AMF) symbiosis is becoming popular. It can provide tolerance to the host plant against Zn-induced stress. Inoculation of AMF helps in balance uptake of Zn and enhances the growth and yield of crops. On the other hand, maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop due to its multifarious uses. As maize is an effective host for mycorrhizae symbiosis, that's why this review was written to elaborate on the beneficial role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). The review aimed to glance at the recent advances in the use of AMF to enhance nutrient uptake, especially Zn. It was also aimed to discuss the mechanism of AMF to overcome the toxic effect of Zn. We have also discussed the detailed mechanism and physiological improvement in the maize plant. In conclusion, AMF can play an imperative role in improving maize growth, yield, and balance uptake of Zn by alleviating Zn stress and mitigating its toxicity.

Drought is one of the most emerging threat that causes a severe reduction in cotton plant growth and development. Being cotton is a major cash crop has great threat to prevailing drought events in Pakistan. A field experiment was conducted in Kharif season 2018 at Research Area of MNS-University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan to assess the role of foliar applied kaolin and jasmonic acid on vegetative growth, gas exchange and reproductive traits of cotton under normal irrigated and artificial water deficit conditions. The experiment was laid -out in a factorial randomized complete block design with split – split plot arrangement. Main plots were allocated for irrigation levels, sub-plots for two -cotton genotypes viz. NIAB − 878 and SLH − 19 while sub – sub plots for treatments of kaolin and Jasmonic acid. Water deficit stress was created by skipping irrigation at flowering for 21 days. Foliar sprays of Kaolin (5%, w/v) and Jasmonic acid (100 μM) were applied alone or in combination at 60 days after planntinon both to normal irrigated and water-stresse skip irrigation while irrigation water alone was sprayed in control plots. Both cotton genotypes responded variably to normal irrigated and skip conditions. Skipping irrigation for up to 21 days at flowering caused a significant decrease in leaf relative water content, SPAD values, net photosynthetic rate and seed cotton yield in both the genotypes. Seed cotton yield showed an overall decline of 24.7% in skip over Normal irrigated crop. The genotype NIAB − 878 produced maximum seed cotton yield of 3.304 Mg ha−1 in normal that dropped to 2.579 Mg ha−1 in skip, thus showing an average decline of 21.9 %. Similarly, SLH − 19 produced 2.537 Mg ha−1 seed cotton under normal that dropped to 1.822 Mg ha−1 in skip, showing an average decline of 28.2%. The Application of Kaolin and JA Jasmonic acid, either applied individually or in combination, improved vegetative and reproductive development of both cotton varieties in normal and skip regimes. However, combined kaolin and Jasmonic Acid application proved to be more beneficial in terms of seed cotton production and other parameters studied.

The efficiency of nitrogenous fertilizers in South Asia is on a declining trajectory due to increased losses. Biochar (BC) and slow-releasing nitrogen fertilizers (SRNF) have been found to improve nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in certain cases. However, field-scale studies to explore the potential of BC and SRNF in south Asian arid climate are lacking. Here we conducted a field experiment in the arid environment to demonstrate the response of BC and SRNF on cotton growth and yield quality. The treatments were comprised of two factors, (A) nitrogen sources, (i) simple urea, (ii)neem-coated urea, (iii)sulfur-coated urea, (iv) bacterial coated urea, and cotton stalks biochar impregnated with simple urea, and (B) nitrogen application rates, N1=160 kg ha-1, N2 = 120 kg ha-1, and N3 = 80 kg ha-1. Different SRNF differentially affected cotton growth, morphological and physiological attributes, and seed cotton yield (SCY). The bacterial coated urea at the highest rate of N application (160 kg ha-1) resulted in a higher net leaf photosynthetic rate (32.8 μmol m-2 s-1), leaf transpiration rate (8.10 mmol s-1), and stomatal conductance (0.502 mol m-2 s-1), while leaf area index (LAI), crop growth rate (CGR), and seed cotton yield (4513 kg ha-1) were increased by bacterial coated urea at 120 kg ha-1 than simple urea. However, low rate N application (80 kg ha-1) of bacterial coated urea showed higher nitrogen use efficiency (39.6 kg SCY kg-1 N). The fiber quality (fiber length, fiber strength, ginning outturn, fiber index, and seed index) was also increased with the high N application rates than N2 and N3 application. To summarize, the bacterial coated urea with recommended N (160 kg ha-1) and 75% of recommended N application (120 kg ha-1) may be recommended for farmers in the arid climatic conditions of Punjab to enhance the seed cotton yield, thereby reducing nitrogen losses.

The tremendous increase in industrial development and urbanization has become a severe threat to the Chinese climate and food security. The Agricultural Production System Simulator model was used to simulate soil nitrogen in black soil in Yangling Jilin Province for 20 years. The observed values are consistent with the simulated values. The predicted values of total soil NO3−–N and NH4+–N nitrogen are 10 kg ha−1 and 5 kg ha−1 higher than the observed values. The total soil NO3−–N loss has the same trend as the rainfall, and it increases with the number of rainfall days over the years. The average 20 years losses of NO3−–N and NH4+–N observed were 1375.91 kg ha−1, and 9.24 kg ha−1, while in the simulation increase was 1387.01 kg ha−1 and 9.28 kg ha−1, respectively. The difference between the observed and simulated values of NO3−–N and NH4+–N of mean loss was 11.15 kg ha−1 and 0.04 kg ha−1 respectively. Moreover, our findings highlight the opportunity further to improve management policies (especially for nitrogen) to maintain crop yield.

Soil with heavy metals contamination, mainly lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr) is a progressively worldwide alarming environmental problem. Recently, biochar has been used as a soil amendment to remediate contaminated soils, but little work has been done to compare with other organic amendments like compost. We investigated biochar and compost's comparative effect on Pb, Cd, and Cr immobilization in soil, photosynthesis, and growth of maize plants. Ten kg soil was placed in pots and were spiked with Pb, Cd, and Cr at concentrations 20, 10, 20 mg kg-1. The biochar and compost treatments included 0, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4% were separately applied to the soil. The crop from pots was harvested after 60 days. The results show that the highest reduction of AB-DTPA extractable Pb, Cd, and Cr in soil was 79%, 61% and 78% with 4% biochar, followed by 61%, 43% and 60% with 4% compost compared to the control, respectively. Similarly, the highest reduction in shoot Pb, Cd, and Cr concentration was 71%, 63% and 78%with 4% biochar, followed by 50%, 50% and 71% with 4% compost than the control, respectively. The maximum increase in shoot and dry root weight, total chlorophyll contents, and gas exchange characteristics were recorded with 4% biochar, followed by 4% compost than the control. The maximum increase in soil organic matter and total nitrogen (N) was recorded at 4% biochar application while available phosphorus and potassium in the soil at 4% compost application. It is concluded that both biochar and compost decreased heavy metals availability in the soil, reducing toxicity in the plant. However, biochar was most effective in reducing heavy metals content in soil and plant compared to compost. In the future, more low-cost, eco-friendly soil remediation methods should be developed for better soil health and plant productivity. ispartof: SCIENTIFIC REPORTS vol:11 issue:1 ispartof: location:England status: published

Ginger is used as one of the important ingredients in traditional as well as modern medicine besides as a spice. It boosts immunity and is a rich source of many biologically active substances and minerals. Although it is a medicinally important crop, its productivity is, however, affected due to poor nutrient management and therefore it requires an adequate supply of nutrients in the form of inorganic fertilizers or organic manuring, or a mixture of both. In this context, the present study was aimed to investigate the effect of mineral fertilizers on the content of mineral elements in the ginger rhizome, on soil enzyme activity, and soil properties. Lysimeter experiments were conducted at the Institute of Genetics and Plant Experimental Biology, Kibray, Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. The experiment comprised of four treatments T1 – Control, T2 - N75P50K50 kg/ha, T3 - and T4 - N100P75K75 + B3Zn6Fe6 kg/ha. The results showed that the application of N125P100K100 kg/ha increased rhizome K content by 49%, P content by 20%, and Na content by 58% as compared to control without fertilizer. While the application of N100P75K75 + B3Zn6Fe6 kg/ha showed a significant enhancement in rhizome K, Ca, P, Mg, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Mo, and Si contents over the control. This treatment also improved active P content by 29%, total P content by 80%, total K content 16%, and N content by 33% content, and the activities of urease, invertase, and catalase activities as compared to control of without mineral fertilizer and control respectively. Thus the application of NPK + BZnFe at the rate of 100:75:75:3:6:6 kg/ha helps in improving macroelements and microelements in the ginger rhizome and activities of soil enzymes that helps in mineral nutrition of the rhizome.

Conventional agricultural practices and rising energy crisis create a question about the sustainability of the present-day food production system. Nutrient exhaustive crops can have a severe impact on native soil fertility by causing nutrient mining. In this backdrop, we conducted a comprehensive assessment of bio-priming intervention in red cabbage production considering nutrient uptake, the annual change in soil fertility, nutrient use efficiency, energy budgeting, and economic benefits for its sustainable intensification, among resource-poor farmers of Middle Gangetic Plains. The compatible microbial agents used in the study include Trichoderma harzianum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Bacillus subtilis. Field assays (2016–2017 and 2017–2018) of the present study revealed supplementing 75% of recommended NPK fertilizer with dual inoculation of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens increased macronutrient uptake (N, P, and K), root length, heading percentage, head diameter, head weight, and the total weight of red cabbage along with a positive annual change in soil organic carbon. Maximum positive annual change in available N and available P was recorded under 75% RDF + P. fluorescens + B. subtilis and 75% RDF + T. harzianum + B. subtilis, respectively. Bio-primed plants were also higher in terms of growth and nutrient use efficiency (agronomic efficiency, physiological efficiency, apparent recovery efficiency, partial factor productivity). Energy output (26,370 and 26,630 MJ ha−1), energy balance (13,643 and 13,903 MJ ha−1), maximum gross return (US $ 16,030 and 13,877 ha−1), and net return (US $ 15,966 and 13,813 ha−1) were considerably higher in T. harzianum, and P. fluorescens treated plants. The results suggest the significance of the bio-priming approach under existing integrated nutrient management strategies and the role of dual inoculations in producing synergistic effects on plant growth and maintaining the soil, food, and energy nexus.

An important source of the destructive greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide (N2O) comes from the use of ammonium based nitrogen (N) fertilizers that release N2O in the incomplete conversion (nitrification) of NH4+ to NO3ˉ1. Biochar has been shown to decrease nitrification rates and N2O emission. However, there is little information from semi-arid environments such as in Pakistan where conditions favor N2O emissions. Therefore, the object was to conduct field experiment to determine the impact of biochar rates in the presence or absence of urea amended soils on yield-scaled N2O emissions, and wheat yield and N use efficiency (NUE). The experiment on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), had a randomized complete block design with four replications and the treatments: control, sole urea (150 kg N ha−1), 5 Mg biochar ha−1 (B5), 10 Mg biochar ha−1 (B10), urea + B5 or urea + B10. In urea amended soils with B5 or B10 treatments, biochar reduced total N2O emissions by 27 and 35%, respectively, over the sole urea treatment. Urea + B5 or + B10 treatments had 34 and 46% lower levels, respectively, of yield scaled N2O over the sole urea treatment. The B5 and B10 treatments had 24–38%, 9–13%, 12–27% and 35–43%, respectively greater wheat above-ground biomass, grain yield, total N uptake, and NUE, over sole urea. The biochar treatments increased the retention of NH4+ which likely was an important mechanism for reducing N2O by limiting nitrification. These results indicate that amending soils with biochar has potential to mitigate N2O emissions in a semi-arid and at the same time increase wheat productivity.

Organic residues are an important factor that directly affects fruiting tree seedlings' health at earlier stages. It provides a suitable environment for seedling growth by providing better nutrient ions, water, and aeration. However, low organic contents and high shrinkage of most organic materials mostly deteriorate ideal potting media characteristics. Low aeration, high water, and nutrients leaching decrease seedling growth and cause a significant loss of valuable resources. That is why the current study was conducted to screen out the best indigenous materials based on particle size to produce good characteristics bearing potting media. For that, eight different ingredients, i.e., “sugarcane”, “coconut coir”, “wheat straw”, “rice straw”, “corn cob”, “leaf litter”, “farmyard manure”, and “sunflower heads” were collected. Initially, all the materials were air-dried and processes as per requirement. After grinding, three particles size (fine = < 2 mm, medium = 3 mm and coarse = 5 mm) were separated by sieving. Results showed that decreasing particle size in “rice straw”, “corn cob”, “farmyard manure,” and “sunflower head” decreased leachate pH. Higher EC in leachates was negatively correlated with particle size in all potting media ingredients. Except for farmyard manure, fine particle size increases the water-holding ability of potting media ingredients. However, air-filled porosity was associated with a decrease in particle size of potting media in gradients. In conclusion, farmyard manure, “sunflower heads”, “leaf litter” and “sugarcane” should be incorporated while making a combination for potting media. More investigations are suggested by mixing different particle size ingredients to prepare potting media.

Plant-based synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) has emerged as a potential alternative to traditional chemical synthesis methods. In this context, the aim of the present study was to synthesize Ag-NPs from Cassia fistula (L.) leaf extract and to evaluate their nano-pesticidal potential against major phyto-pathogens of tomato. From the data, it was found that particle size of spherical C. fistula leaf synthesized (Ag@CfL-NPs) varied from 10 to 20 nm, with the average diameter of 16 nm. Ag@CfL-NPs were validated and characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy (surface resonance peak λmax = 430 nm), energy dispersive spectrophotometer (EDX), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction pattern (XRD), and electron microscopy; scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The FTIR spectra verified the participation of various living molecules (aromatic/aliphatic moieties and proteins) in synthesized Ag@CfL-NPs. The anti-phytopathogenic potential of Ag@CfL-NPs was assessed under in vitro conditions. Increasing doses of Ag@CfL-NPs exhibited an inhibitory effect against bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae and 400 μg Ag@CfL-NPs ml–1 caused a reduction in cellular viability, altered bacterial morphology, and caused cellular death Furthermore, Ag@CfL-NPs reduced exopolysaccharides (EPS) production and biofilm formation by P. syringae Additionally, Ag@CfL-NPs showed pronounced antifungal activity against major fungal pathogens. At 400 μg Ag@CfL-NPs ml–1, sensitivity of tested fungi followed the order: Fusarium oxysporum (76%) > R. solani (65%) > Sarocladium (39%). Furthermore, 400 μg Ag@CfL-NPs ml–1 inhibited the egg-hatching and increased larval mortality of Meloidogyne incognita by 82 and 65%, respectively, over control. Moreover, pot studies were performed to assess the efficacy of Ag@CfL-NPs to phyto-pathogens using tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) as a model crop. The applied phyto-pathogens suppressed the biological, physiological, and oxidative-stress responsiveness of tomatoes. However, 100 mg Ag@CfL-NPs kg–1 improved overall performance and dramatically increased the root length, dry biomass, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, peroxidase (POD), and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) activity over pathogens-challenged tomatoes. This study is anticipated to serve as an essential indication for synthesis of efficient nano-control agents, which would aid in the management of fatal phyto-pathogens causing significant losses to agricultural productivity. Overall, our findings imply that Ag@CfL-NPs as nano-pesticides might be used in green agriculture to manage the diseases and promote plant health in a sustainable way.

Bacterial pathogenesis-associated characteristics such as biofilm formation, synthesis of hydrolyzing enzymes, and toxins are regulated by Acyl Homoserine Lactones (AHLs), small peptides and diffusing signal factors (DSF). Lelliottia amnigena is gram negative bacteria and its pathogenicity is regulated by the luxR and luxI class of quorum sensing. The signaling molecules and their concentrations are essential for the virulence of the pathogenic bacterium. To suppresses the pathogenicity; the concentration of signalling molecules must be controlled or degraded. The lactonase have the ability to hydrolyze lactones of different chain length. The present study deals with a newer approach to control the pathogenesis of Lelliottia amnigena through isolation and characterization of Aiia lactonase from Bacillus cereus RC1. Aiia lactonase specific primers were used to amplify the gene, and the sequence thus obtained was submitted to the Genbank database under accession # OK643884.1. The gene was cloned in pBE-S shuttle vector and transformed in the recombinant host. The expressed and purified protein had a molecular weight of 28.00 KDa and exhibited its optimum activity at 37℃ by inhibiting the violacein pigment of the monitor strain Chromobacterium violaceum MTCC 2656. The proteinaceous nature of the purified molecule was confirmed by incubating it in the presence of proteinase K for 1 h. The activity of the pathogenesis-related protein, polygalacturonase was drastically reduced in the presence of the purified Aiia protein. The purified protein also showed a zone of inhibition when plated together with Lelliottia amnigena RCE (MZ712952.1). Searches of the Conserved Domain Database suggested that this protein belonged to the Metallo-beta-lactamase superfamily and is closely related to Aiia from B. thuringiensis serovar kurstaki. Modeling of the protein structure was done using I-TASSER; a C-score of 0.55 suggested that the model was of good quality. To be used commercially, this recombinant protein needs to be purified at an industrial scale; it can then be used to repress the growth of soft rot causing bacteria in horticultural crops during their storage period.

Cadmium (Cd) is one of the potential carcinogenic toxins for humans, plants, and animals. Higher uptake of Cd in plants causes a significant reduction in productivity that can be remediated using organic amendments. Biochar can absorb Cd and decrease its toxicity. However, the high pH of biochar minimizes its adaptation as an amendment in alkaline soils. As Cd is highly soluble in water, its uptake in rice is a major issue. That is why the current experiment was conducted to examine chemically produced acidified carbon (AC) effectiveness in alleviating Cd-induced stress in rice. There were three levels of Cd (0, 4, and 8 mg kg−1 soil) applied with three levels of AC (0, 0.5, and 1%) for the cultivation of rice irrigated with ground water (GW) and waste water irrigation (WW). Results confirmed that applying 1% AC improved plant height, spike length, and 1000 grains weight over 0% AC under GW and WW irrigations at 8 mg Cd kg−1 soil (8Cd) toxicity. A significant increase in photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance by 1% AC validated its effectiveness in alleviating 8Cd stress in rice under GW and WW. Overall, 1% AC is an effective amendment in alleviating Cd toxicity in rice irrigated with GW and WW at 8Cd. More investigations are recommended at the field level to declare 1% AC as the most effective application rate for mitigating Cd stress in rice.

Natural grasslands represent the second largest ecosystem in Turkey. However, the impact of varying nitrogen (N) fertilization rates on overall soil health indicators have not been reported in the country. A 2-year study was conducted in the Kahramnmaras Plateau region in Turkey to evaluate the impacts of seven N application rates [i.e., 0 (N0), 50 (N50), 100 (N100), 150 (N150), 200 (N200), 250 (N250), and 350 (N350) kg N ha−1] on physical, chemical, and biological parameters of soil health. Nitrogen addition decreased bulk density by 8–12%, and increased aggregate stability by 3–5% and EC up to 110%. Application of ≥ 100 kg N ha−1 increased soil porosity up to 6.7%. Soil pH and C:N ratios were not affected by N addition. The lowest plant available water occurred with the N0 and N50 treatments, decreasing around 24% and 17% compared to N300. Soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, and C and N stocks increased with increasing N addition. Application of N300 rates increased C stocks between 4 and 34%, and N stocks between 15 and 22% compared to all other treatments. Compared to control, N250 increased microbial biomass carbon by 349% and nitrogen by 250%. Microbial respiration in the N250 and the N300 treatments was 97% and 129% greater than control. Addition of N fertilization for a first time in a grassland ecosystem with a previous history of long-term overgrazing, even at low rates, positively impacted several parameters of soil health, a positive impact that could ensure a greater sustainability of these fragil systems over the long-term.

Bacterial spot, caused by a group of Xanthomonads (Xanthomonas spp.), is a devastating disease. It can adversely affect the Capsicum annum productivity. Scientists are working on the role of antioxidants to meet this challenge. However, research is lacking on the role of antioxidant enzymes and their isoforms in the non-compatible pathogen and host plant interaction and resistance mechanisms in capsicum varieties. The present study was conducted to ascertain the defensive role of antioxidant enzymes and their isoforms in chilli varieties Hybrid, Desi, Serrano, Padron, and Shehzadi against bacterial spot disease-induced Xanthomonas sp. The seedlings were inoculated with bacterial pathogen @ 107 CFU/mL, and samples were harvested after regular intervals of 24 h for 4 days followed by inoculation. Total plant proteins were extracted in phosphate buffer and quantified through Bradford assay. The crude protein extracts were analyzed through quantitative enzymatic assays in order to document activity levels of various antioxidant enzymes, including peroxidase (POD), Catalase (CAT), Ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and Superoxide dismutase (SOD). Moreover, the profiles appearance of these enzymes and their isoforms were determined using native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) analysis. These enzymes exhibited maximum activity in Hybrid (HiR) cultivar followed by Desi (R), Serrano (S), Padron, and Shehzadi (HS). Both the number of isoforms and expression levels were higher in highly resistant cultivars compared to susceptible and highly susceptible cultivars. The induction of POD, CAT, and SOD occurs at the early stages of growth in resistant Capsicum cultivars. At the same time, APX seems to make the second line of antioxidant defense mechanisms. We found that modulating antioxidant enzymes and isoforms activity at the seedling stage was an important mechanism for mitigating plant growth inhibition in the resistant ones.

The effects of different land-use types on physicochemical properties and erodibility indices in suitable utilization of soil are the most important issue to be investigated. That’s why the current study was carried out to investigate changes in physical, chemical soil properties and erodibility indexes under different land-use types i.e., larch-fir forests, adjacent pasture, and riparian areas. Soil samples were collected from different land use in the Meydan Pond micro-basin. Five subsamples were taken at the 0–10 cm depth at five different sampling spots in each one of the three land-use systems (i.e., forest, pasture, and riparian areas). Results showed that silt content was around 38% higher in the forest soils over pasture and the riparian areas. Dispersion rate (80%) and erosion ratio (11%) were significantly higher in riparian areas over the pasture. In conclusion, pasture soils are resistant to erosion due to the higher amount of clay percentage (95%) and aggregation rate (38%) as compared to riparian areas that are more erodible. It is concluded that the river basin should be arranged according to the land capability classes’ principles to protect the soil's fertile layer from erosion to achieve the maximum productivity of crops.

Farmers are not growing diversified crops and applying huge amounts of agrochemicals and imbalanced fertilizers in the rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS), since the 1960s. The objective of this study was to evaluate the microbial and nutrient dynamics in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) under various sowing environments and nutrient sources during Rabi season (October–March), 2015–2016. The experiment was laid out in the split-plot design with three sowing dates in main-plots, and eight nutrient sources in sub-plots. The maximum bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes population, soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC), dehydrogenase activities, and available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulphur (NPKS) were recorded on November 17 sown crop, and the lowest was observed on December 7 sowing during both the years, and in the pooled analysis. Furthermore, applied nutrient sources, highest bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes population, available NPKS, SMBC, and dehydrogenase activity were observed in 75% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) + 25% N through pressmud (PM) + Azotobacto + phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB) than other nutrient sources. In conclusion, high demand and cost of chemical fertilizers can be replaced by 25% amount easily and locally available organic manures like PM compost to sustain the soil health and crop productivity. It will be helpful to restore the soil biodiversity in the RWCS and provide a roadmap for the researchers, government planners, and policymakers for the use of PM as a source of organic matter and nutrients.

Climate change, environmental pollution and depletion of natural resources are among the prominent potential challenges for sustainable crop production and environment management in modern agriculture. Rice production systems have threatened with insect pests and weeds that significantly contribute to yield losses. Although control of insects, pests and weeds has remained the major effective plant protection tool, yet hazards to environmental safety urge the scientific community to propose alternative pest management strategies. Apprehensions about conventional agriculture sustainability have impelled the extensive introduction of integrated pest management (IPM). Bio-based IPM is one of the important component for controlling insect-pests, and weeds in rice, as it is environmentally benign, effective, and economically viable. In the present article, we analysed several studies to highlight the: (1) description of practices related to IPM in rice, (2) progress regarding the bio-based integrated insect pests and weed management with possible implications and scope, (3) allelopathy effectiveness for weed management in rice, and (4) present dilemmas and proposed future research directions. Briefly, this article explores the opportunities for the scientists and rice farmers to maximize the utilization of diverse natural control agents as a partial or total substitute for synthetic pesticides.

Less phosphorus (P) availability in calcareous alkaline soils is one of the major problems in achieving an optimum crop yield. Its deficiency in plants adversely affects growth and yield attributes. To overcome this issue, growers incorporate inorganic P fertilizers. However, the need for time in the sustainable management of soil fertility in terms of P. Farmyard manure (FYM) application is one of the most popular organic amendments in this regard. Thus, the current study was conducted to explore the best application rate of FYM in combination with inorganic P fertilizer single super phosphate (SSP). There were six treatments i.e., control (0F), 100%SSP (100P), 25% FYM and 75% SSP (25F+75P), 50% FYM and 50% SSP (50F+50P), 75% FYM and 25% SSP (75F+25P), and 100% FYM (100F+0P), applied in three replications. The design of the experiment was a randomized complete block design. For assessment of treatment response, two wheat cultivars (V1 = Pirsabak and V2 = Atta Habib) were used. Results showed that the application of 50F+50P significantly improved the plant height (20.69 and 32.01%), spike/m2 (35.19 and 30.10%), grain (41.10 and 38.16%), and leaf P (49.82 and 71.32%) compared to control in V1 and V2, respectively. A significant improvement in the grain and the biological yield of wheat V2 also validated the efficacious functioning of 50F+50P over control. In conclusion, 50F+50P has the potential to enhance wheat growth and nutrient concentration over control. More investigations are required for a more precise and balanced synchronization of FYM and SSP for the achievement of maximum wheat yield.

Plant-based synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) has emerged as a potential alternative to traditional chemical synthesis methods. In this context, the aim of the present study was to synthesize Ag-NPs from

Management of organic matter and micronutrients is very important for the sustainable improvement of soil health. Poor soil organic matter usually results in lower availability of zinc (Zn) micronutrients in plants. Such deficiency in Zn causes a significant decrease in the growth and yield of crops. The need at the current time is to balance the application of organic amendments with Zn micronutrients to achieve optimum crop yields. Thus, the current study was conducted to investigate wheat, using compost as organic matter and Zn as a micronutrient. There were three levels of compost (i.e., control (0C), 5 t/ha (5C) and 10 t/ha (10C)) and four levels of Zn (control (0Zn), 2.5 kg Zn/ha (2.5Zn), 5.0 kg Zn/ha (5.0Zn) and 10.0 kg Zn/ha (10.0Zn)) applied with three replicates. The addition of 10C under 10.0Zn produced significantly better results for the maximum enhancement in plant height (8.08%), tillers/m2 (21.61%), spikes/m2 (22.33%) and spike length (40.50%) compared to 0C. Significant enhancements in 1000-grain weight, biological yield and grain yield also validated the effectiveness of 10C under 10.0Zn compared to 0C. In conclusion, application of 10C with 10.0Zn showed the potential to improve wheat growth and yield attributes. The addition of 10C with 10.0Zn also regulated soil mineral N, total soil N and extractable soil P. Further investigation is recommended with different soil textures to verify 10C with 10.0Zn as the best amendment for the enhancement of wheat yield in poor organic matter and Zn-deficient soils.

Diazotrophic endophytic bacteria (DEB) are the key drivers of nitrogen fixation in rainfed soil ecosystems and, hence, can influence the growth and yield of crop plants. Therefore, the present work investigated the structure and composition of the DEB community at different growth stages of field-grown pearl millet plants, employing the cultivation-dependent method. Diazotrophy of the bacterial isolates was confirmed by acetylene reduction assay and amplification of the nifH gene. ERIC-PCR-based DNA fingerprinting, followed by 16S rRNA gene analysis of isolates recovered at different time intervals, demonstrated the highest bacterial diversity during early (up to 28 DAS (Days after sowing)) and late (63 DAS onwards) stages, as compared to the vegetative growth stage (28–56 DAS). Among all species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most dominant endophyte. Assuming modulation of the immune response as one of the tactics for successful colonization of P. aeruginosa PM389, we studied the expression of the profile of defense genes of wheat, used as a host plant, in response to P. aeruginosa inoculation. Most of the pathogenesis-related PR genes were induced initially (at 6 h after infection (HAI)), followed by their downregulation at 12 HAI. The trend of bacterial colonization was quantified by qPCR of 16S rRNAs. The results obtained in the present study indicated an attenuated defense response in host plants towards endophytic bacteria, which is an important feature that helps endophytes establish themselves inside the endosphere of roots.

Soil microbial community is the main indicator having a crucial role in the remediation of polluted soils. These microbes can alter soil pH, organic matter in soils (SOM), soil physic-chemical properties, and potential soil respiration rate via their enzymatic activities. Similarly, heavy metals also have a crucial role in soil enzymatic activities. For this purpose, a number of methods are studied to evaluate the impact of soil pH (a key factor in the formation of biogeographic microbial patterns in bacteria) on bacterial diversity. The effects of pH on microbial activity are glamorous but still unclear. Whereas, some studies also indicate that soil pH alone is not the single key player in the diversity of soil bacteria. Ecological stability is achieved in a pollution-free environment and pH value. The pH factor has a significant impact on the dynamics of microbes' communities. Here, we try to discuss factors that directly or indirectly affect soil pH and the impact of pH on microbial activity. It is also discussed the environmental factors that contribute to establishing a specific bacterial community structure that must be determined. From this, it can be concluded that the environmental impact on soil pH, reducing soil pH and interaction with this factor, and reducing the effect of soil pH on soil microbial community.

The field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of applying urea with nitrification inhibitor (NI) (Nitrapyrine) alone or in combination with gibberellic acid (GA-K salt), on improving wheat yield and N-use efficiency at The University of Agriculture (34.1°ʹ21″ N, 71°28′5′E), Peshawar-Pakistan. There were five treatments with four replications: control (no urea), urea (150 kg N ha−1), urea + nitrapyrin (525 g ha−1), urea + GA-K salt (60 g ha−1), and urea + nitrapyrin + GA-K salt, respectively. Wheat plant biomass, grain yield and total N uptake were enhanced by 31, 37 and 44%, respectively, when urea was applied together with nitrapyrin and GA-K salt over control. In addition, 1000 grains weight, grain spike−1, and spike length were also significantly increased when urea was applied with both nitrapyrin + GA-K salt. In conclusion, use of urea with 525 g ha−1 nitrapyrin or 60 g ha−1 GA-K salt has the potential to enhance N-use efficiency and yield components of wheat yield.

Poor soil fertility due to continuous depletion of micronutrients is a major problem for the production of Prunus domestica L. Low level of soil organic matter and calcareous parent material decrease the bioavailability of these micronutrients to plum plants. Thus, less micronutrients uptake resulted in deterioration of plum fruit quality and decreased yield. On the other hand, balance and correct combination of micronutrients used as a foliar has potential to overcome this problem. Foliar application method provides plants a chance for rapid and easy uptake of micronutrients. Therefore, the present research was carried out to select the best combination of micronu-trients using foliar method. Aim of the study was to select a balanced combination of micronutrients for better production and improved quality of plum (Prunus domestica L., variety Fazal manai) fruit. Seven treatments in three replications were applied. Our results showed that the quality of fruit was significantly improved through the application of T6 micronutrients consortia. A significant increase in total soluble solids (16%), fruit yield per tree (92%) and fruit size (12%) validated the effectiveness of treatment T6 (Zn + Cu + Fe + Mn + B = 0.5% + 0.2% + 0.5% + 0.5% + 0.1%) over control. Application of treatment T6 also enhanced quality attributes, that is, juice acid-ity (22%), juice sugar (22%) and juice contents (16%), as compared to control. It is concluded that use of treatment T6 as a foliar application is a better approach for significant improvement in quality and yield attributes of plum in micronutrients deficient conditions.

Co-inoculation with beneficial microbes has been suggested as a useful practice for the enhancement of plant growth, nutrient uptake, and soil nutrients. For the first time in Uzbekistan the role of plant-growth-promoting

The quorum sensing (QS) system of bacteria helps them to communicate with each other in a density-dependent manner and regulates pathogenicity. The concentrations of autoinducers, peptides, and signaling factors are required for determining the expression of virulence factors in many pathogens. The QS signals of the pathogen are regulated by the signal transduction pathway. The binding of signal molecules to its cognate receptor brings changes in the structure of the receptor, makes it more accessible to the DNA, and thus regulates diverse expression patterns, including virulence factors. Degrading the autoinducer molecules or disturbing the quorum sensing network could be exploited to control the virulence of the pathogen while avoiding multidrug-resistant phenotypes. The rhizosphere is a tremendous source of beneficial microbes that has not yet been explored properly for its anti-quorum sensing potential.

Cultivation of crops in salt-affected soils is a major challenge for growers. Despite the use of multiple amendments, salinity stresses adversely affect the crops to some extent. On the other hand, imbalance in the use of boron (B) as a nutrient also creates toxicity. Mismanagement of B fertilizer application decreases the growth and yield of crops. It is necessary to study in depth the adverse effects of salinity and B toxicity. This is why the current research work was conducted in a glass house at Murdoch University, Perth, Australia. The aim of study was to investigate the influence of salinity and B toxicity on carbohydrate partitioning, growth, and ionic composition of two Australian wheat varieties. There were four treatments, i.e., control, high B (15 kg ha−1), salinity (15 dS m−1), and B + salinity. The results showed that the salt-tolerant Halberd (HB) variety accumulated more Na+, B, and Cl− in their leaf sheath and kept the leaf blades free of these toxic ions as compared to the sensitive variety Westonia (WS). Water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC; i.e., glucose, sucrose, fructose, and fructans) concentration increased in response to individual as well as combined constrains of soil salinity and toxic B in the leaf blade of both tolerant and sensitive wheat varieties, but the increase was higher in the tolerant variety as compared to the sensitive one. The concentration of WSCs in leaf sheath of the salt-tolerant wheat variety was increased in response to stress conditions, but those remained low in salt-sensitive ones. Therefore, the salt-tolerant HB genotype was found to be a good source for future wheat breeding programs or to be grown by farmers in B toxic, saline, and B toxic–saline conditions.

Phytohormones (PHs) play crucial role in regulation of various physiological and biochemical processes that govern plant growth and yield under optimal and stress conditions. The interaction of these PHs is crucial for plant survival under stressful environments as they trigger signaling pathways. Hormonal cross regulation initiate a cascade of reactions which finely tune the physiological processes in plant architecture that help plant to grow under suboptimal growth conditions. Recently, various studies have highlighted the role of PHs such as abscisic acid, salicylic acid, ethylene, and jasmonates in the plant responses toward environmental stresses. The involvement of cytokinins, gibberellins, auxin, and relatively novel PHs such as strigolactones and brassinosteroids in plant growth and development has been documented under normal and stress conditions. The recent identification of the first plant melatonin receptor opened the door to this regulatory molecule being considered a new plant hormone. However, polyamines, which are not considered PHs, have been included in this chapter. Various microbes produce and secrete hormones which helped the plants in nutrient uptake such as N, P, and Fe. Exogenous use of such microbes help plants in correcting nutrient deficiency under abiotic stresses. This chapter focused on the recent developments in the knowledge related to PHs and their involvement in abiotic stresses of anticipation, signaling, cross-talk, and activation of response mechanisms. In view of role of hormones and capability of microbes in producing hormones, we propose the use of hormones and microbes as potential strategy for crop stress management.