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Anthropogenic heat release is the release of heat generated by anthropogenic energy consumption. The regional mean Anthropogenic heat release flux in Southwest China grew quickly from 0.06 Wm-2 in 1992 to a peak of 0.37 Wm-2 in 2019. This study examines the climatic effects and feedbacks of Anthropogenic heat release due to energy consumption in Southwest China during the boreal summer using simulations from the Community Earth System Model. The modeling results show that Anthropogenic heat release impacts on the lower-troposphere stability and affects large-scale atmospheric circulation in Southwest China, which transports more water vapor and consequently increases the humidity and low cloud cover in Southwest China. This effect impacts the energy balance at the surface by reducing the amount of incoming shortwave radiation that reaches the ground. Anthropogenic heat release decreases the average 2-m air temperature in Southwest China by 0.10 ± 0.01 K (1σ uncertainty) and also decreases the minimum and maximum air temperatures in Southwest China as well. Anthropogenic heat release contributes to cooler and wetter summers in Southwest China. The results show that Anthropogenic heat release is a non-negligible factor that impacts the climate of Southwest China. This study improves our understanding of the climate change resulting from human activities in Southwest China.

Additional file 1: Fig. S1. Comparison of stem diameters, internode lengths, and plant height.

Additional file 3: Fig. S3. Top 30 significantly enriched Gene Ontology (GO) terms (p

Additional file 2: Fig. S2. Venn diagram of down-regulated DEGs in SS1vsNSS and SS2vsNSS.

Additional file 4: Fig. S4. Top 30 significantly enriched Gene Ontology (GO) terms (p

The reliability of climate simulations and projections, particularly in the regions with complex terrains, is greatly limited by the model resolution. In this study we evaluate the variable-resolution Community Earth System Model (VR-CESM) with a high-resolution (0.125°) refinement over the Rocky Mountain region. The VR-CESM results are compared with observations, as well as CESM simulation at a quasi-uniform 1° resolution (UNIF) and Canadian Regional Climate Model version 5 (CRCM5) simulation at a 0.11° resolution. We find that VR-CESM is effective at capturing the observed spatial patterns of temperature, precipitation, and snowpack in the Rocky Mountains with the performance comparable to CRCM5, while UNIF is unable to do so. VR-CESM and CRCM5 simulate better the seasonal variations of precipitation than UNIF, although VR-CESM still overestimates winter precipitation whereas CRCM5 and UNIF underestimate it. All simulations distribute more winter precipitation along the windward (west) flanks of mountain ridges with the greatest overestimation in VR-CESM. VR-CESM simulates much greater snow water equivalent peaks than CRCM5 and UNIF, although the peaks are still 10–40% less than observations. Moreover, the frequency of heavy precipitation events (daily precipitation ≥25mm) in VR-CESM and CRCM5 is comparable to observations, whereas the same events in UNIF are an order of magnitude less frequent. In addition, VR-CESM captures the observed occurrence frequency and seasonal variation of rain-on-snow days and performs better than UNIF and CRCM5. These results demonstrate the VR-CESM's capability in regional climate modeling over the mountainous regions and its promising applications for climate change studies.

Winter wheat varieties require an extended low temperature period to initiate or accelerate the flowering process(vernalization).Spring wheat varieties do not have the vernalization requirement,and they would be exposed to a high risk of cold injury if sowed in low temperature.Correct evaluation of the winterness is the prerequisite to study and utilization of wheat germplasm,wheat production,and minimizing the cold injury.It also has certain theoretical significance when explaining the ecotype of wheat.Therefore,it′s of great importance to build an accurate method to evaluate vernalization characteristic of different wheat varieties.To address this issue,we investigated the growth characters of 12 wheat varieties under natural or artificial vernalization conditions,and proposed two reliable standards to evaluate the winterness of wheat. Twelve varieties,including Shannong8355,Jimai20,Jimai22,Shangnong14,Shannong15,Taishan008,Shannong664,Jimai19,Shannong16,Zimai12,Yannong19 and Shannong2413,were sowed every month from October to the following February.They experienced the winter and acquired vernalization naturally.For comparison,these twelve varieties were sowed every month from March to May after an artificial low temperature treatment was appllied from March to May next year.The temperature of artificial vernalization was set to 3℃,and the durations were 0d,10d,20d,30d,40d,50d,and 60d,respectively.The experiment was repeated twice in two years. The characters related to vernalization,such as number of spikes,spikelets and stem tillers,and thousand seed weight,were investigated.The datasets obtained from wheat that have been naturally or artificially vernalized were statistically compared.In addition,the growth cones of vernalized wheat planted in May were dissected and checked on the 20th day after emergence. The data was normalized first,followed by variance test and cluster analysis.The results showed,that the character of number of stem tillers,spikelets and thousand seed weight,were overlapping among different kinds of cultivars under natural and artificial vernalization,therefore the indexes above are not suitable to evaluate the strength of winterness of wheat.Neither can the number of wheat spikes under condition of natural vernalization,because it was affected by many factors,such as planting time and seeding rate.By contrast,the number of wheat spikes,under artificial vernalization that the effect of natural low temperature was eliminated,can serve as a good indicator to evaluate the strength of winterness.In addition,the shape of growth cone,which grows up about 20 days after emergence,is another indicator as good as the numbers of spikes. Based on the cluster analysis of the numbers of spikes under the conditions of artificial vernalization,the twelve wheat varieties surveyed here were divided into three categories,namely weak winterness,winterness and strong winterness.Shannong8355,Jimai20,Jimai22 and Shangnong14 belonged to weak winterness cultivars.Shannong15,Taishan008,Shannong664 and Jimai19 were winterness cultivars,and the strong winterness cultivars included Shannong16,Zimai12,Yannong19 and Shannong2413.This result is largely consistent with that obtained from observation of morphology characteristics,but the former gives more accurate evaluation for some varieties. As a conclusion,the number of spikes and shape of growth cone under artificial vernalization are two indicators of wheat winterness.When using this method,to avoid influence of natural low temperature,the daily maximum temperature should be higher than 12℃ at sowing stage.Meanwhile,the days of daily minimum temperature below 3℃ should be less than 4 days after planting.For evaluating vernalization characteristic of wheat in Shandong province,the temperature in April is suitable to sow after different time of artificial low temperature treatment.In other area,optimum planting date can be determined to satisfy the above temperature requirements.