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Wood is a sustainable and renewable material with a lower carbon footprint than other materials. However, its transformation into engineered products industrially, such as glulam, requires kiln drying, which implies energy consumption and loss of wood resources. Recent research has carried out green gluing, a variant of glulam characterized by a reduction of the drying process. Interest in it has increased as a new method of improving the use of wood that does not meet industry standards. It has been accomplished by developing adhesives for wood with high moisture content, but the variables involved are not yet completely understood. Therefore, conducting further research and analyzing the relevant publications is necessary. Bibliometric analysis was the method used, which included documents stored (from 2000 to 2020) in Scopus (Elsevier), Web of Science (Clarivate Analytics), and SciELO Citation Index (Web of Science—Clarivate Analytics) databases. The bibliometric analysis identified three main areas to develop: glue wood, glue properties, and analysis methods. The studies were concentrated on a few countries and research groups. The main progress has been made in synthetic and natural (or environmentally friendly) glue topics. The improvement of technique could enlarge the opportunities for collaboration and innovation in wood material science.

Gluing of wood with great moisture content has challenge of water interaction with glue to give unwanted changes in glue properties and formed bond-line. Rheological measurements of polyurethane glues are sufficiently effective method to understand the polymer curing process and viscoelastic properties. Gel formation point is important parameter for a glue from the point of its application. When glue reaches the gel formation point, its viscosity drastically increases so that it could not properly wet the wood and it can result in poor bonds. One-component moisture curing polyurethane glues require water molecules for the polyadditional reaction. When water is involved in the curing reaction, it reacts with the isocyanate groups of glue and can lead to the formation of excessive carbon dioxide and thus can lead to glue penetration out of bond-line, additional backpressure. The dynamic viscoelastic parameters such as complex dynamic viscosity (ή), phase angle (δ), elastic storage modulus (G”), the viscous loss modulus (G”) of two kinds of polyurethane glues depending on added water amount (from 0.9% to 10.0%) at a constant frequency and deformation (oscillation mode) were determined using rheometer. The aim of the present study was to investigate impact of added water on rheological behavior of polyurethane glues. At the end of this study it was concluded that tested glues indicated various behavior depending on chemical composition and added water content. Gel formation point is higher in case of GlueI. However, gel formation time was higher in case of GlueII and was not dependent on added water content. Gel formation time was faster for GlueII. Nevertheless, faster formed gel is stronger than longer formed gel of GlueI.

The gluing of unseasoned wood, called green gluing, is a relatively new sawmill process, implying a radically changed order of material flow in the production of value-added wood-based products. It facilitates the enhancement of raw material recovery and value yield by integrating defect elimination and gluing already before kiln drying. The present study evaluates green glued adhesive bonds in flatwise glued beams and finger joints. The main part of this work deals with green gluing using a moisture curing polyurethane adhesive (PUR). Standardised test methods and specially designed, small scale, specimens were used for the determination of the strength, fracture energy and the ductility of both dry- and green glued bonds in tension and in shear. Using the small scale specimens it was possible to capture the complete stress versus deformation curves, including also their unloading part. An optical system for deformation measurement was used for the analysis of bond behaviour. The influence of moisture content during curing and temperature after curing on the adhesive chemical composition and on the mechanical properties was investigated. Furthermore, the moisture transport through the adhesive bond during curing was tested. Finally, microscopy studies were performed for analysis of bond morphology and fracture. The results show that two significant factors influence the shear strength of green glued bonds: wood density and adhesive spread rate. Bonds which fulfil the requirements according to EN 386 could be obtained within a wide range of process parameters. The small specimen tests showed that green glued PUR bonds can reach the same strength and fracture energy, both in shear and in tension, as dry glued bonds with the same adhesive amount. The local material properties of the bonds could be determined, thanks to the failure in the tests taking place within the adhesive bond itself and not in the wood. Following process factors were shown to cause lower bond strength: a) a low adhesive spread rate, b) high pressure and c) short pressing time in combination with low wood density and high moisture content. Moreover, the heat treatment of the cured PUR adhesive during drying influenced the chemical composition of the adhesive, providing for higher strength, stiffness and Tg of the adhesive, caused by an increased amount of highly ordered bidentate urea.

QCR 20161026

The purpose of this project was to investigate the possibilities to manufacture wet-glued laminated beams for load bearing applications from Norway spruce side board lamellae and by that achieve products that are difficult to obtain from the centre yield of a log and also contribute to increased profitability in the sawmill industry. Properties such as shape stability, strength and stiffness of wet glued beams with crosssectional dimensions 50×300 mm2 and lengths 4850 and 5200 mm were analysed and compared with corresponding dry glued products. The results obtained are very promising. espite the fact that the beams were produced from a batch of unsorted boards, the performed tests showed that the product has the necessary qualities to be competitive in relation to both glued laminated timber of grade L40 and structural strength graded timber of grade C35. Requirements concerning limitations for geometrical characteristics as expressed in a proposal for a new harmonised glulam standard are also met. The bond line of the wet glued beams was analysed regarding mechanical properties such as fracture energy, local strength and wood failure percentage after cyclic boiling and drying treatments. The results showed that the bonds are able to comply with requirements concerning bond lines to be used in indoor as well as outdoor constructions for structural pplications. To be able to improve the quality of boards for use as lamellae in wet glued beams, a method for scanning the slope of grain and disturbance of grain on board surfaces was also further developed and implemented. Projektets syfte har varit att undersöka möjligheterna att använda sidobräder av gran för tillverkning av våtlimmade balkar för byggmarknaden och därigenom erhålla produkter som dels är svåra att få fram ur centrumutbyte, dels kan bidra till förbättrad lönsamhet i sågverksindustrin. Formstabilitet, hållfasthet och styvhet för våtlimmade balkar med tvärsnittsdimensionen 50×300 mm2 och längderna 4850 resp. 5200 mm har undersökts och jämförts med motsvarande torrlimmade produkter. De resultat som framkommit är mycket lovande. Trots att balkarna tillverkats av ett osorterat sortiment bräder visar genomförda provningar att produkten har goda förutsättningar att kunna konkurrera med såväl limträ i klass L40 som konstruktionsvirke i klass K35. Dessutom uppfylls de krav på måttavvikelser som ställs i det föreliggande (juni 2008) förslaget till ny harmoniserad standard för limträ. Balkarnas våtlimmade limfogar har undersökts med avseende på tekniska egenskaper som brottenergi, korttidshållfasthet och risk för delaminering. Delamineringsprovning innebär att limfogen först utsätts för upprepade uppfuktningar och uttorkningar t.ex. genom kokning eller autoklavbehandling, varefter man mäter hur stor andel av limfogen som släppt. Resultaten visar att fogarna kan uppfylla de krav som ställs på limfogar för användning såväl inom- som utomhus i lastbärande konstruktioner. För att i framtiden kunna sortera fram ett bättre sortiment sidobräder för tillverkning av balkar har en metod för skanning av fibervinkel och snedfibrighet på brädytor vidareutvecklats och implementerats.

In a previous research project, carried out during the years 2006-2008, the possibility to manufacture wet glued laminated beams using ungraded laminations of Norway spruce side boards was investigated with very promising results. In the project presented in this report, the performance of the wet glued beams has been further investigated and developed as regards grading of side board laminations, bond line properties and lamination finger jointing. The possibility to use scanning equipment for measurement of fibre angles and prediction of strength and stiffness of boards and beams has been studied and the procedures for technical approval and CE marking have been probed into. Studies concerning market and economy for the beams and layouts for a pilot plant and a full capacity plant, respectively, for production of such beams have also been carried out. The possibility to grade side boards in the wet state using axial dynamic excitation was investigated with a positive result. From such excitation, a board’s stiffness (modulus of elasticity) could be determined. Accordingly, grading criteria regarding axial stiffness, and knot size, was applied to grade side board laminations into two classes; outer and inner laminations. Strength and stiffness tests of beams manufactured from such graded laminations showed that the beams actually could challenge first rate glulam and LVL products available on the market. Regarding beam shape and shape stability, cross section cupping may need further attention. Even if this deformation was small, it was still visible to the naked eye. The problem could probably be overcome if the beams are dried to a moisture content of 12-14% before planing. Results of shear tests show that green glued bond lines can fulfil strength requirements for glulam. However, delamination requirements for service class 3 (outdoors) were not fully met. From small scale tensile testing of glued bonds it was concluded that green glued bonds with high density wood have the same tensile strength and fracture energy as dry glued bonds. For bonds with low density wood and/or small amount of adhesive, the tensile strength could be lower than for dry glued bonds, whereas the fracture energy was on a similar level. Strength testing of wet and dry glued finger joints demonstrated that joints glued from high density wood was significantly stronger than low density joints and that there was no significant difference between the strength of green glued joints and joints glued after drying. From X-ray measurement it was shown that the glue penetration into the wood fibres is much deeper in a green glued joint than in a joint that is glued in the dried state. From scanning algorithms developed within the scope of this project it is possible to obtain reasonably accurate predictions of grain-angle distributions on board surfaces as well as rather accurate descriptions of knot locations and of fibre-angle disturbances around knots. From scanning of board ends, cross section characteristics with respect to radial and tangential directions and of annual ring widths could also be determined. Finally, both board and beam stiffness were predicted from this data, with an accuracy that is comparable with the one obtained from well-reputed commercial grading systems.

The development of new adhesives during the last decades has implied radically changes in the sawmill industry. The gluing of unseasonned wood, called green gluing, allows a new order in the process of engineered wood products, thanks to the final position of the drying step. Nevertheless, the jointing prevents the free shrinkage of wood during the mass transfer, involving a stress development. Nowadays, numerous drying models have been developed to predict the deformations and stresses of wood, but few have been confirmed by experimental tests. For an organic material such as wood, the measurement of hygromechanical properties will be more efficient if there is no interaction between the material and the measurement system. One of the most promising experimental techniques for this kind of issue is noncontact optical measurement based on Digital Image Correlation principles. The objective of this study is to evaluate by experimental and numerical solutions the stress development in green-glued wood laminated timber subjected to drying conditions. An experimental method has been set up and the results allow to validate a numerical finite elements model. The model which has been chosen is an orthotropic elastic model, able to describe the morphology of the wood material. This study allows to identify the parameters governing the damage of the interface. This approach leads to suggest some preconizationsin order to optimize the behavior of product during the drying procedure., La formulation de nouveaux adhésifs durant les dernières décennies a permis de développer des procédés de collage innovants pour l’industrie du bois. Dans cette optique, le collage du bois à l’état vert permet de créer une chaîne d’élaboration de matériaux techniques, sans ruptures de charges dans le processus industriel grâce à un séchage en fin de cycle. Or le collage implique un retrait empêché des assemblages au cours du séchage, induisant un développement de contraintes. À ce jour, de nombreuses études numériques portant sur le comportement du bois collé soumis à des variations hydriques ont été effectuées, sans pour autant avoir été mises en relation avec des études expérimentales. L’extension récente des techniques de corrélation d'images permet d'effectuer des mesures de champs sans contact, particulièrement adaptées à un matériau hygroscopique tel que le bois. L’objectif de la thèse est d’appréhender par des approches expérimentale et numérique les contraintes hydromécaniques qui peuvent survenir dans des assemblages contrecollés. Une expérimentation, permettant de mesurer les champs durant le séchage a été mise en place. Le modèle numérique retenu est un modèle élastique orthotrope, permettant de prendre en compte la morphologie du matériau bois. Nous pouvons identifier les paramètres gouvernant les mécanismes d'endommagement du joint de colle et proposer des conditions de mise en œuvre optimisant la tenue de l'assemblage au séchage.

Creep and temperature-dependent creep, characteristic of one component polyurethane adhesives for wet and green structural wood gluing such as in glulam are two different parameters. Testing of the best standards-approved commercial polyurethane adhesive for this purpose shows that while ambient temperature creep is limited this is not the case for temperature-dependent creep. The commercial adhesive formulation characteristics that minimize or enhance ambient temperature and temperature-dependent creep are identified.