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The methods used to value tropical forests have the potential to influence how policy makers and others perceive forest landsforestlands. A small number of valuation studies achieve real impact. These are generally succinct accounts supporting a specific perception. However, such reports risk being used to justify inappropriate actions. The end users of such results are rarely those who produced them and misunderstanding of key details is a concern. One defence is to ensure that the ultimate users appreciate shortcomings and common pitfalls. In this article, the authors aim to reduce such risks by discussing how valuation studies should be assessed and challenged by users. The authors consider two concise, high profile valuation papers here, by Peters and colleagues and by Godoy and colleagues. They illustrate a series of questions that should be asked, not only about the two papers, but also about any landscape valuation study. The article highlighted the many challenges faced in valuing tropical forest landsforestlands and in presenting and using results sensibly, and it offers some suggestions for improvement. Attention to compexitiescomplexities and clarity about uncertainties are required. Forest valuation must be pursued and promoted with caution.

AutoTech;Eventora;Rieter;Saco;Showroom10 17th World Textile Conference: Shaping the Future of Textiles, AUTEX 2017 -- 29 May 2017 through 31 May 2017 -- -- 131781 Needlepunched nonwoven textiles are commonly used as geotextiles for various applications. Considering both environmental and economical benefits, utilization of recycled fibres in nonwoven geotextiles has become an attractive issue. Within this scope, the aim of this study is to evaluate the puncture resistance performances of top and bottom layers of multi-layered needle punched nonwovens made of recycled fibres to be used as membrane protective geotextiles by comparing them with those of made from polypropylene and polyester fibres. Puncture resistance results indicated that nonwovens made of recycled fibres demonstrated good performances at this preliminary stage. © Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd. Firat University Scientific Research Projects Management Unit: 2016/MF 008 In this study puncture resistance performances of 12 types of preneedle punched nonwovens in 3 different raw materials and 4 equivalent mass groups were compared considering mass per unit area values and raw material types. When mass per unit area values were taken into account; between each raw material group, it was obviously seen that for both PP fabrics and PET fabrics puncture resistances increased with increasing mass per unit area values as expected excluding the puncture resistance of the PET fabric of 250g/m2. Considering recycled fabrics it can be observed that except the puncture resistance value of the fabric of 200 g/m2 rising values took place for rising mass per unit area values respectively. In different raw materials groups, punctrure resistance values obtained for PP fabrics were found to be the lowest values for each group of mass per unit area excepting the group of fabrics of 200 and 250g/m2. The puncture resistance values of PET fabrics except the fabrics of 200 and 250g/m2 came after for each group of mass per unit areas. The puncture resistance of recycled fabrics were the highest excluding the fabric group of mass per unit area of 200 g/m2. Besides, recycled fabrics performed dramatically good puncture resistance values that can be related with the entanglement of longer fibers they involve. Acknowledgments This work has been supported by the Usak University Scientific Research Project under grant [2016/MF 008].

We present the first top-down CO fire emissions inventory for Africa based on the direct relation between geostationary satellite-based Fire Radiative Power (FRP) measures and satellite observations of Total Column Carbon Monoxide (TCCO). This work extends significantly the previous Fire Radiative Energy Emissions (FREM) approach that derived Total Particulate Matter (TPM) emission coefficients from FRP measures and Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) observations. The use of satellite-based CO observations to derive CO emission coefficients, CeCO, addresses key uncertainties in the use of AOD measures to estimate fire-generated CO emissions including; the requirement for a smoke mass extinction coefficient in the AOD to TPM conversion; and the large variation in TPM emission factors – which are used to convert TPM emissions to CO emissions. We use the FREM-derived CO emission coefficients to produce a Pan-African CO fire emission inventory spanning 16 years. Regional CO emissions are in close agreement with the most recent version of GFED(v4.1s), despite the two inventories using completely different satellite datasets and methodologies to derive CO emissions. Dry Matter Consumed (DMC) and DMC per unit area values are generated from our CO emission inventory – the latter using the 20 m resolution Sentinal-2 FireCCISFD burnt area (BA) product for 2019. We carry out an evaluation of our FREM-based CO emissions by using them as input in the WRF-CMAQ chemical transport model and comparing simulated TCCO fields to independent Sentinal-5P TROPOMI TCCO observations. The results of this validation show FREM CO emissions to generally be in good agreement with these independent measures – particularly in the case of individual fire-generated CO plumes where modelled in-plume CO was within 5 % of satellite observations with a coefficient of determination of 0.80. Modelled and observed CO, averaged over the full model domain, are within 4 % of each other, though localised regions show an overestimation of modelled CO by up to 50 %. However, when compared to other evaluations of current state-of-the-art fire emissions inventories, the FREM CO emission inventory derived in this work shows some of the best agreement with independent measures. Updates to the previously published FREM TPM emissions coefficients are also provided in the Appendix of this article, along with a satellite and ground-based validation of this FREM TPM emissions inventory. The methodology and resulting CO fire inventory described in this work will form the basis of an upcoming operational LSASAF CO fire emissions product for Africa.

Thermal resistance and moisture management characteristics are important attributes of textile materials for the characterisation of their ability to provide thermal comfort. Nettle fibre consists of a hollow core that is expected to enable good thermal and moisture regulation properties. Nonwoven fabrics of three different mass per unit area values, made from nettle, polyester and blends thereof, were prepared on a needlepunching machine, maintaining the same punch density and depth of penetration. The thermal conductivity, water vapour permeability, water retention, wicking, moisture management, drying rate and air permeability of these fabrics were evaluated. Nonwoven fabric prepared with 100% nettle fibres exhibited good thermal conductivity, while polyester fabric demonstrated good thermal insulation. The nettle fibre fabric showed good water retention, drying rate and moisture management properties. On the other hand, polyester-enriched fabric exhibited good wicking behaviour.

The European exposure data for BN-FLEMO models contains three datasets that can be used with BN-FLEMO models for the estimation of flood loss. The dataset contains: (1) European asset map with unit area values of residential and commercial buildings in EURO per square meter based on reconstruction cost and NUTS-3 regions or national GDP per capita. The values are mapped on CORINE land cover classes for urban areas (111 and 112). (2) Residential building areas in Europe with building area sizes in square meter for each NUTS-3 region. The building area sizes were calculated based on the building geometries extracted from the OSM database. (3) Flood experience in Europe with geometries of historic flood events (1985- 2015) with start date of the events. This dataset can be used to calculate the number of past flood events in an area.

Old growth mangroves in existing protected areas store more carbon than restored forests or plantations. Carbon storage in such forests has economic value independent of additionality, offering opportunities for policy makers to ensure their maintenance, and inclusion in climate change mitigation strategies. Mangrove forests of the Everglades National Park (ENP), South Florida, though protected, face external stressors such as hydrological alterations because of flooding control structures and agriculture impacts and saltwater intrusion as a result of increasing sea level rise. Moreover, decreased funding of Everglades’ restoration activities following the recent economic crisis (beginning 2008) threatens the restoration of the Greater Everglades including mangrove dominated coastal regions. We evaluate several economic and ecological challenges confronting the economic valuation of total (vegetation plus soil) organic carbon (TOC) storage in the ENP mangroves. Estimated TOC storage for this forested wetland ranges from 70 to 537 Mg C/ha and is higher than values reported for tropical, boreal, and temperate forests. We calculate the average abatement cost of C specific for ENP mangroves to value the TOC from $2–$3.4 billion; estimated unit area values are $13,859/ha–$23,728/ha. The valuation of the stored/legacy carbon is based on the: 1) ecogeomorphic attributes, 2) regional socio-economic milieu, and 3) status of the ENP mangroves as a protected area. The assessment of C storage estimates and its economic value can change public perception about how this regulating ecosystem service of ENP mangrove wetlands (144,447 ha) supports human well-being and numerous economic activities. This perception, in turn, can contribute to future policy changes such that the ENP mangroves, the largest mangrove area in the continental USA, can be included as a potential alternative in climate change mitigation strategies.

After washing cycles, textiles having minimum deformation, maximum dimensional stability and the same performance of an unused product are major expectations of customers. This study examined the effects of washing cycles on the cyclic deformation of elastane knitted fabrics in detail. 12 knitted fabrics with two different linear densities of viscose yarn and three different polyamide/elastane gimped yarn of two different tightness levels (normal and tight) were used in the experiments. M&S P15A test method were used to evaluate the cyclic deformation of unwashed and washed fabrics (0, 5, 15 and 25 cycles) for four different recovery time periods (0 min, 2 min, 30 min and 24 h). Dimensional change, tightness factor and mass per unit area values were also examined in order to investigate the residual deformation of the fabrics after each washing stages. Consequently, it is determined that the fabrics having 21 tex viscose ground yarn and 78dtex20f elastane gimped yarn with higher setting show less residual extension (%). 5 and 15 washing cycles and a 30 min. recovery time are found significant for all repeated washings. © 2019, Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres. All rights reserved.

Developing countries that intend to implement the United Nations REDD-plus (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation, and the role of forest conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks) framework and obtain economic incentives are required to estimate changes in forest carbon stocks based on the IPCC guidelines. In this study, we developed a method to support REDD-plus implementation by estimating tropical forest aboveground biomass (AGB) by combining airborne LiDAR with very-high-spatial-resolution satellite data. We acquired QuickBird satellite images of Kampong Thom, Cambodia in 2011 and airborne LiDAR measurements in some parts of the same area. After haze reduction and atmospheric correction of the satellite data, we calibrated reflectance values from the mean reflectance of the objects (obtained by segmentation from areas of overlap between dates) to reduce the effects of the observation angle and solar elevation. Then, we performed object-based classification using the satellite data (overall accuracy = 77.0%, versus 92.9% for distinguishing forest from non-forest land). We used a two-step method to estimate AGB and map it in a tropical environment in Cambodia. First, we created a multiple-regression model to estimate AGB from the LiDAR data and plotted field-surveyed AGB values against AGB values predicted by the LiDAR-based model (R2 = 0.90, RMSE = 38.7 Mg/ha), and calculated reflectance values in each band of the satellite data for the analyzed objects. Then, we created a multiple-regression model using AGB predicted by the LiDAR-based model as the dependent variable and the mean and standard deviation of the reflectance values in each band of the satellite data as the explanatory variables (R2 = 0.73, RMSE = 42.8 Mg/ha). We calculated AGB of all objects, divided the results into density classes, and mapped the resulting AGB distribution. Our results suggest that this approach can provide the forest carbon stock per unit area values required to support REDD-plus.

A series of empirical studies involving typhoon rainstorm and flood risk scenario analysis were carried out on a medium spatial scale, covering Pingyang County. Considering a rainstorm/water-logging conversion process, active flooding submergence and per unit area values (million yuan/km2), two typical risk scenarios (50- and 100-year frequency) were simulated and analyzed. The study revealed that high-risk areas distributed across the towns of Aojiang, Qiancang and Xiaojiang, with a maximum submerged depth of 4.61 m for a 100-year flood hazard. In the case of a disaster loss rate >65 %, the potential maximum loss could be more than 10 million yuan/km2. For medium-scale disaster risk, more attention must be paid to catastrophic events, which have a low probability of occurrence but would induce great losses. An amended risk formula could determine the degree of priority for responses to hazards of equal risk value better. In Pingyang County, the 50-year flood risk for Kunyang, Aojiang, Qiancang and Xiaojiang is greater than that of 100-year events for the next 50 years. However, these areas should give priority to their responses to 100-year disaster events during the next 100 years. In addition, the attention of disaster risk should vary in different spatial regions.

Quantitative analysis of the rate of geochemical weathering of sulfur (S) from sedimentary rocks (GeoS) was conducted using concentration (Cs) and discharge (Qs) data from the Tedori River and atmospheric deposition (AtdepS) in the basin. First, S fluxes were calculated using 16 years of Cs and Qs data. The annual average discharge of S (TotalS) was estimated at 8597 ton·year-1 (117.3 kg·ha-1·year-1). Of this, 1331 ton·year-1 was AtdepS (18.2 kg·ha-1·year-1) and another 7266 ton·year-1 was GeoS (99.1 kg·ha-1·year-1). Monthly changes in TotalS were investigated, which showed that GeoS was highest in summer, because of the air temperature, while AtdepS peaked in winter because of seasonal wind. Using Qs and AtdepS corrected for altitude, TotalS, AtdepS and GeoS were estimated at six sites, and among these sites we found that the TotalS per unit area values were random, depending on the site characteristics. In particular, the discharge from the Kuwajima site was remarkably high suggesting that the sedimentary rocks at this site had higher pyrite content than at the other sites. Finally, we also assessed the relationship between the characteristics of sedimentary rocks and GeoS in a range of rivers in the Hokuriku Region, and found that there was a close relationship between concentrations of SO42- greater than 10 mg·l-1 and sedimentary rocks containing the pyrite group. In addition, we estimated that the influence of GeoS was present when the concentration of SO42- in river water was greater than 2 - 3 mg·l-1 in the Hokuriku region.

The efficacy of extreme events is directly linked to the flood power and the total energy expended. The geomorphic effectiveness of floods is evaluated in terms of the distribution of stream power per unit boundary area ( ω ) over time, for three very large floods of the 20th Century in the Indian Peninsula. These floods stand out as outliers when compared with the peak floods per unit drainage area recorded elsewhere in the world. We used flood hydrographs and at-a-station hydraulic geometry equations, computed for the same gauging site or a nearby site, to construct approximately stream-power curves and to estimate the total energy expended by each flood. Critical unit stream power values necessary to entrain cobbles and boulders were estimated on the basis of empirical relationships for coarse sediment transport developed by Williams [Williams, G.P., 1983. Paleohydrological methods and some examples from Swedish fluvial environments. I. Cobble and boulder deposits. Geografiska Annaler 65A, 227–243.] in order to determine the geomorphological effectiveness of the floods. The estimates indicate that the minimum power per unit area values for all three floods were sufficiently high, and stream energy was above the threshold of boulder movement (90 W m − 2 ) for several tens of hours. The peak unit stream power values and the total energy expended during each flood were in the range of 290–325 W m − 2 and 65–160 × 10 6 J respectively. The average and peak flood powers were found to be higher or comparable to those estimated for extreme palaeo or modern floods on low-gradient, alluvial rivers.

Information on the amount, distribution, and characteristics of coarse woody debris (CWD) in forest ecosystems is in high demand by wildlife biologists, fire specialists, and ecologists. In its important role in wildlife habitat, fuel loading, forest productivity, and carbon sequestration, CWD is an indicator of forest health. Because of this, the USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station’s Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program recognized the need to collect data on CWD in their extensive resource inventories. This paper describes a sampling method, measurement protocols, and estimation procedures to collect and compile data on CWD attributes within FIA’s forest inventory. The line-intersect method was used to sample CWD inside the boundaries of the standard inventory field plot. Previously published equations were customized to allow for easy calculation of per-unit-area values, such as biomass and carbon per hectare, log density per hectare, or volume per hectare, for each plot. These estimates are associated with all other information recorded or calculated for an inventory plot. This allows for indepth analysis of CWD data in relation to stand level characteristics. The data on CWD can be used to address current, relevant issues such as criteria no. 5 outlined in the 1994 Montreal process and the 1995 Santiago declaration. This criteria assesses the contribution of forests to the global carbon cycle by measuring such indicators as CWD, live plant biomass, and soil carbon.

Objectives: Rotator cuff repair is associated with an unusually high incidence of osteoarthritic changes and cartilage damage in the glenohumeral joint. Such degeneration may be secondary to improper tensioning of muscular stabilizers during surgical intervention; however, existing studies have not specifically examined changes in joint congruity following rotator cuff repair. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess for changes in glenohumeral contact forces following the repair of rotator cuff injury. Methods: Transduction mapping was performed on the glenohumeral joint of ten fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulder specimens. A calibrated pressure-mapping sensor was introduced through the rotator interval and secured along the concavity of the glenoid labrum. Following a baseline force measurements, analysis of force intensity and total glenohumeral contact area was performed in each specimen for 6 simulated injury and treatment conditions: A) A 1 cm supraspinatus lesion; B) 2-suture repair of the 1 cm lesion; C) removal of the 2-suture repair; D) a 2 cm supraspinatus lesion; E) 3-suture repair of the 2 cm lesion and; F) removal of the 3-suture repair. All repairs were performed via bone tunnels in the standard method described. Data were recorded over 60s intervals at a rate of 4 frames per second and included raw force, area, and force per unit area. Values for lesion, repair, and post-repair conditions were expressed as a proportion of initial baseline measurements. Means and standard deviations were then calculated for each condition and compared via Student’s t-tests. Results: For baseline measurements, the mean intact glenohumeral force was 38.55 ± 24.79 N and the mean contact area was 313 ± 84.09 mm2. In comparison to baseline values, 3-suture repair yielded a significant increase in both total glenohumeral force (mean proportion: 2.16 ± 3.26; p=0.046) as well as proportion of force per unit area (1.73 ± 1.86 N/mm2; p=0.024). Both the 2 cm lesion and the 2-suture repair removal yielded significant decreases in contact area when compared to baseline, with the former exhibiting a proportion of 0.76 ± 0.19 (p=0.040) and the latter yielding a proportion of 0.60 ± 0.29 (p=0.004). No other conditions exhibited significant changes from baseline measurements. Conclusion: Rotator cuff injury leads to alterations in glenohumeral forces, with significant increases in articular contact-pressures following repair of larger supraspinatus lesions. These findings offer a possible explanation for the high rate of degenerative changes demonstrated following rotator cuff repair. Further study is warranted to determine how current treatment methods might be improved to result in glenohumeral contact pressures resembling those experienced prior to injury.

Biodeposition of organic matter, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and cadmium (Cd) by zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) was investigated at five stations in the western basin of Lake Erie during the summer of 1992. Biodeposition rates at the five stations were determined by using sediment traps and converted to per unit area values to facilitate comparisons with natural sedimentation rates. Biodeposition of suspended material by zebra mussels was up to 8 times greater than sedimentation in the traps. Concentrations of organic matter, PCBs, and Cd were determined for the biodeposits and the sedimented material. There were no significant differences in concentration of organic matter, PCBs, or Cd between the two types of material. Biodeposition rates per unit area of organic matter, PCBs, and Cd were 8-10 times greater than corresponding values for natural sedimentation; therefore, the natural sedimentation processes of these factors appear to be greatly accelerated in the presence of zebra mussels. Results support the possibility that zebra mussels are altering contaminant movement in western Lake Erie, as well as clarifying the water column by removing suspended material.

This paper utilises cluster analytical techniques to examine the relationship between store space requirements, micro‐style property selection and retail function. Analysis of survey data infers that retail function is the most important dimension in determining retailers’ behaviour with respect to store space requirements. Suggests that variation across a range of factors pertinent to the valuation of shop premises cannot be explained by store space requirements. Concludes that application of unit area values derived from the comparison of properties of different size and layout in any assessment of retail rental values is potentially flawed.

The problem of the propagation of a plane light wave in a turbulent medium is studied on the basis of the ideas of statistical topography. A cluster (caustic) structure of the intensity of the wave field in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave is analyzed both in the region of weak intensity fluctuations and in the region of saturated fluctuations. The specific (per unit area) values of the total area of the regions where the intensity is greater than a fixed level, the fraction of the power confined in these regions, and the total perimeter and average number of such regions are estimated. It is shown that estimates of this kind can be made on the basis of a knowledge of the joint one-point probability distribution of the intensity and transverse gradient of the wave field.

This study was carried out to determine the effects of different irrigation methods (drip (D1), subsurface drip (D2), surface (Y) and under-tree micro sprinkler (M)) on vegetative growth of Jersey Mac (Ç1) and Williams Pride (Ç2) apple cultivars budded on M9 during the years between 2006-2008. Experiment site was in Research and Application Farm of Agricultural Faculty, University of Suleyman Demirel. Applied water amounted %100 of Class A Pan evaporation measured during five irrigation interval. In the experiment years, applied irrigation water amount and measured crop evapotranspiration values in drip irrigation methods were 67 % less than under-tree micro sprinkler and surface irrigation methods. According to the results, the highest trunk cross section unit area values were determined in 2006, 2007 and 2008 years with respectively 2.94, 6.23 and 8.96 cm2 in drip irrigation method (D1). In the last year of the experiment, the highest tree height, canopy volume, shoot length, numbers of shoot values were obtained in drip irrigation method (D1) as 212.83 cm, 2.29 cm3 , 40.33 cm and 11.73 respectively., Bu çalışma, 2006–2008 yılları arasında Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Araştırma ve Uygulama Çiftliğinde tesis edilen elma bahçesinde yürütülmüştür. Çalışmada, farklı sulama yöntemlerinin (toprak üstü damla (D1), toprak altı damla (D2), yüzey (Y) ve ağaç altı mikro yağmurlama (M)) M9 klonal anaçları üzerine asılı Jersey Mac (Ç1) ve Williams Pride (Ç2) elma çeşitlerinin vejetatif gelişimi üzerine etkilerinin belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Uygulanan sulama suyu miktarı, beş günlük sulama aralığında Class A Pan buharlaşma kabında ölçülen toplam buharlaşma miktarının tamamı kadardır. Deneme yıllarında, uygulanan sulama suyu miktarları ve ölçülen bitki su tüketimi değerleri damla sulama yöntemlerinde, ağaç altı mikro yağmurlama ve yüzey sulama yöntemlerine göre yaklaşık % 67 daha az bulunmuştur. Her üç yılda da Ç1’deki en yüksek gövde kesit alanları 2.94, 6.23 ve 8.96 cm2 ile toprak üstü damla sulama yönteminde (D1) belirlenmiştir. Denemenin son yılında ise her iki elma çeşidinin ortalamalarına göre en yüksek ağaç yüksekliği, taç hacmi, sürgün uzunluğu ve dal sayıları sırasıyla 212.83 cm, 2.29 cm3 , 40.33 cm ve 11.73 adet olarak toprak üstü damla sulama yönteminden (D1) elde edilmiştir.

Testing the thermal properties of thermal interface material (TIM) has been a big challenge for decades. Recent development trends made this challenge even bigger, as now the values that have to be measured are extremely small. In this paper, we present a newly developed TIM tester equipment that is targeting to overcome all the problems that present industrial TIM testing methods face. The main idea behind our design is to use the capabilities of microelectronics in order to make small sized sensors both for temperature and heat-flux sensings. This way it is possible to place these sensors in the closest proximity of the measured sample. This paper presents details of all the technical solutions of the newly developed static TIM tester that is capable to measure Rth of unit area values in the order of 0.01 K cm2/W with good accuracy. Special attention is made to analyze and eliminate the possible sources of measurement inaccuracy. A number of measurement examples prove the usability of the developed measuring instrument.

Bu araştırma, 2008-2009 yıllarında Ordu ili Kabataş ilçesi ve Kabataş'a bağlı Alankent beldesinde, 400 m, 600 m ve 800 m rakıma sahip, güney yöneyindeki Çakıldak fındık bahçelerinde yürütülmüştür. Farklı rakımların verim ve kalite kriterleri üzerine etkisini belirlemek amacıyla, benzer şartları taşıyan 400 m, 600 m ve 800 m rakımlarda, 3 tekerrürlü 9 bahçe belirlenmiş ve araştırma bu bahçelerde sürdürülmüştür. Farklı rakımlara sahip bahçelerden elde edilen fındıkların fiziksel özellikleri incelenmiş ve istatistiki analizlere tabi tutulmuş, korelasyon ve path analizleri yapılarak, dekara verim üzerine olan etki değerleri belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Ayrıca araştırmanın yürütüldüğü bahçelerden ilk yıl yaprak ve toprak örnekleri alınarak besin maddesi içerikleri belirlenmiştir. Farklı rakımlara sahip bahçelerden elde edilen sonuçlara göre, rakım arttıkça dekara verimin azaldığı; dekara verim bakımından en iyi değerlerin 400 m rakıma sahip bahçelere ait olduğu, 800 m rakıma sahip bahçelerde dekara verimin daha düşük seviyede olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. This research was carried out in southwardly Çakıldak hazelnut cultivar orchards which have 400 m, 600 m and 800 m altitudes and are in resort Alankent connected to town Kabataş and Kabataş province, Ordu in 2008-2009. Different altitudes on the yield and quality criteria in order to determine the effect, similar in terms of carrying 400 m, 600 m and 800 m altitudes, with three replicates designated nine orchards and research have been carried out in the orchards. Orchards with a different altitude, obtained from the physical properties of hazelnuts were investigated and subjected to statistical analysis, correlation and path analysis is performed, the effect on yield per unit area values are determined. Also the first year of research conducted in the orchards of leaves and soil samples for nutrient content were determined. Different altitudes with orchards and the results obtained according to the altitude increases, per unit area yield, yield of the reduced accordingly per unit area yield in terms of best value of 400 m altitude, has a orchards belonging to the 800 m altitude, with orchards and per unit area yield a lower level that has emerged. 45

This paper describes the results of an experiment to determine practical screening and quality-assurance procedures to preclude excessive adhesion degradation, due to solder leaching, in gold alloy/solder systems in thick-film hybrid microcircuits. These results include a comparative rating between the materials tested, along with criteria for rating different materials. Four environmental stresses were compared to determine which one to use as a quality-assurance test for adhesion decay. The test method consisted of soldering copper pins to conductor pads on the substrate, and then pull-testing the pins to the destruction of the conductor/substrate bonds, both before and after environmental stresses. This method provides a measurement of both tensile adhesion between the soldered conductor and the substrate and adhesion degradation promoted by the environmental stress. Seven thick-film conductor materials and three solder compositions were used, making a total of 21 conductor/solder systems tested. Pins were soldered to each of the seven conductor materials with each of the three solders. Adhesion measurements were made immediately, again after a minimum three-day shelf life, and also after each environmental stress. The median force-per-unit-area values for each conductor/solder/ environmental stress combination were tabulated and plotted. The results are presented to show the relative degradations of the different materials. Based on the results of the experiment, the temperature cycling stress appears to be the most practical stress to use as a screening procedure for solder leaching. Guidelines are presented for performing the screening test and for determining a rating for any material combination.

Between the months of February, 1998 and December, 1999, six research cruises were carried out on board R.V. Almirante Paulo Moreira, which belongs to CEPNOR/IBAMA. This vessel uses as fishing gear a fish otter trawl spread out by iron doors During the surveys data were collected about the abundance and distribution of two stingray species of the family Dasyatidae, both of them with a wide distribution along the coast. Dasyatis geijskesi, in spite of being an endemic species of northern Brazil, did not show any substantial catch volume. What the research results did show was the predominance of Dasyatis guttata, which accounted for about 90% of the total catch in weight. As to production seasonality, the highest values took place during the dry period, in the months from August to December. For studying species distribution down the water column three depth strata were set up, namely < 50 m, 50 - 100 m and > 100 m, where catch per unit effort and catch per unit area values were estimated, and whose averages were 338.00 kg per hour and 18.56 kg per hectare, respectively. The biggest overall values were recorded in depths over 100 m for the species D. guttata. Entre os meses de fevereiro de 1998 e dezembro de 1999, foram realizados seis cruzeiros a bordo do navio de pesquisa Almirante Paulo Moreira, pertencente ao CEPNOR/IBAMA. O mesmo utiliza como apetrecho de pesca, rede de arrasto de fundo, abertas por portas de ferro. Durante os trabalhos foram coletados dados referentes a abundância e distribuição de duas das principais espécies de arraias capturadas, pertencentes à família Dasyatidae e ambas com ampla distribuição ao longo da costa. Dasyatis geijskesi, em bora seja uma espécie restrita ao Norte do Brasil, não mostrou capturas significativas. Durante as análises, o que ficou constatada foi a predominância da espécie Dasyatis guttata, com aproximadamente 90% da captura total em peso. Com relação à sazonalidade, as maiores capturas aconteceram durante o período seco, entre os meses de agosto e dezembro. Para o estudo da distribuição das espécies na coluna d’água, foram estabelecidos três estratos de profundidades (< 50 m, entre 50 m e 100 m e > 100 m), nos quais foram analisadas CPUE e CPUA, obtendo-se 338,00 kg/hora e 18,56 kg/ha, respectivamente, sendo os maiores valores encontrados em profundidades acima de 100 m, para a espécie D. guttata.

This thesis investigates the misfit valleys of Jersey, Channel Islands. Data on the geology, topography and Quaternary history of the Island provides the geomorphological context to the study. The valleys are suggested to be misfits as they either lack any evidence of recent fluvial activity, or the streams that flow though them are so small that they could not logically be expected to have eroded the valleys. The discharge record of the one gauging station in Jersey is analysed in order to determine whether supporting evidence of stream underfitness can be drawn from these data. This record is too short (only 7 years) to allow meaningful conclusions. Therefore the Jersey precipitation record is used as a proxy for discharge. Examination of the precipitation record shows that trends of increasing winter precipitation and decreasing summer precipitation are apparent. These changes are related to those of the surrounding region and possible causes are suggested. To determine if the valleys were the product of processes operating during the 130 year period of the precipitation record, the Soil Conservation Service (1973) ‘curve numbers’ approach is used to estimate catchment discharge from the precipitation record. A runoff-erosion model is used to estimate the possible amount of erosion produced by these estimated discharges. From this it is suggested that valley formation could not be reasonably expected to have occurred over this time period. Extrapolation of this record to cover a longer period suggests that valley formation was unlikely to have occurred during either the past 1000 years, or over the duration of the Holocene. Given that valley formation is unlikely to have occurred under contemporary climates, it is necessary to consider how formation might be possible. This involves an extensive review of existing theories of misfit valley formation. By a process of elimination it is concluded that valley formation was most likely to have occurred during the cold periods of the Quaternary. The current form of the valleys is most probably a result of processes operating during the most recent, Devensian, cold period. It is suggested that valley formation was a result of a combination of powerful spring snow melt floods and the presence of permafrost that would reduce the amount of infiltration of snowmelt. A review of geomorphological processes in analogous catchments suggests this mechanism is feasible. In order to gain as much support as is possible for this theory, an extensive investigation of the morphometry of the valleys is performed. This aims to demonstrate that the morphometry of the Jersey catchments is dissimilar from other temperate valleys but comparable to periglacial permafrost catchments. Before this is possible, a historical review of morphometry and fluvial geomorphology is conducted to provide an academic context to this research. This traces the origins, development and application of morphometric methodology to fluvial geomorphology, the concept of drainage density, and the impacts of fractals on fluvial morphometry. A range of models of drainage network structure is discussed, including so called ‘Hortonian analysis’, the infinite topologically random networks model, and the optimal channel network model. The morphometry of the valley networks is examined, together with the methodology used to collect these data. This analysis investigates the structure of the drainage networks, stream orientations, basin areas, gradients, length and width. The variation of these with geology is examined, and it is concluded that there are no statistically significant variations. The possible variation of drainage density with a range of morphometric parameters is investigated. Again, no statistically significant variations are found within and between catchments, between differing geologies, or with drainage basin area. Possible explanations for this are suggested: that the presence of permafrost during valley formation reduced the impact of geological differences; that the extremely high discharges during valley formation rendered such differences irrelevant; or that the close proximity of the catchments means that great variations in other environmental factors did not occur. The use of the Jarvis E-index is discussed and applied to the Jersey catchments, suggesting that whilst this is a useful measure of network ‘compactness’, it is of limited value. The theoretical issues involved with use of drainage density-discharge relationships are discussed together with the validity of this methodology. This concludes that whilst this approach does have problems, it is of value and may be applied to the Jersey catchments. The topological structure of the valley networks is investigated, specifically whether valley lines and networks are fractal features. This is determined by calculating the fractal dimension of the valleys. If a non-integer value is produced then the valleys may be suggested to be fractal, claimed to be the most energetically efficient form. Estimation of the fractal dimension of the stream lines can be determined using five methods. These are, using the exponent in the main stream length-catchment area relationship, derivation from the ‘Horton ratios’, the Richardson or divider method, a modification of this, and functional box counting. This investigation shows disagreement between the various methods when applied to any given valley. This is interpreted to mean that the various methods can not be applied globally, and that the Jersey valleys are not fractal features. A range of explanations is given to account for this, including the periglacial origin of the Jersey valleys in contrast to the temperate origins of most other valleys used to estimate the fractal dimension. This origin of the valleys is suggested to lead to a network structure that whilst being energetically efficient, is not fractal. Asymmetric valley cross sections are often interpreted as being indicative of valley formation under periglacial conditions, as such this would provide important supporting evidence for a periglacial origin for the Jersey valleys. An extensive review of existing theories on the formation of such asymmetric valleys points to the wide range of theories to account for these forms. Research on Jersey suggests that the valley cross sections are indeed asymmetric. This utilised two techniques, firstly using 1:10,000 scale maps, a series of transects were taken across the valleys, and contour heights and separations were used to measure slope gradients. Secondly a digital elevation model was developed for one catchment (St. Peter’s) and a GIS was used to investigate asymmetry within this catchment. This research suggests that there is no single simple trend of one slope aspect being consistently steeper across the whole of the Island. (Although research in St. Peter’s catchment suggests that north and east facing slopes are steeper than any other aspect.) This is taken to be the result of differing radiation receipts leading to differing amounts of slope activity and hence gradients during periglacial climates. A range of possible mechanisms is proposed for how such differing receipts result in differing slope gradients, and various interpretations are proposed, including analogues involving chaos theory. Finally, an attempt is made to estimate the discharge that formed the misfit valleys. A variety of existing morphometric methods of discharge estimation is applied, producing a range of discharge estimates. Many of these approaches are not directly applicable to the hypothesised periglacial origin of the Jersey valleys. Application of these methods is conducted in order to gain the widest possible range of discharge estimates. These estimates are compared to data from periglacial catchments in Alaska to determine whether these estimates are plausible values for periglacial catchments. This allows the immediate rejection of an array of methods, resulting in a selection of approaches that produce discharge per unit area values similar to the Alaskan data. These values suggest that the fluvial discharges that formed the Jersey valleys were some 4 to 6 times greater than contemporary discharges.

Feasibility is demonstrated for a unique high speed double self-aligned bipolar junction transistor utilizing monocrystalline silicon base contacts. The transistor is designed for use in high-speed analog or digital applications -where reduced parasitic capacitances and resistances are essential. The device design is unique in reducing extrinsic base/collector capacitance over single self-aligned bipolar transistors by using two relatively independent process techniques. First, base/collector capacitance is reduced by eliminating all misalignment tolerances between the outer edge of the collector and the base contact. Second, by using monocrystalline silicon instead of polycrystalline silicon base contacts, the contact area or "footprint" may be reduced without increasing contact resistance. Scaled-up versions of the high-speed transistor design were fabricated, electrically tested, and compared with computer simulations. Monocrystalline silicon extrinsic base contacts were fabricated using selective epitaxial growth (SEG) and epitaxial lateral overgrowth (ELO) in a reduced pressure chemical vapor deposition reactor using dichlorosilane and HCl in an H2 carrier gas. Single self-aligned transsistors (SSTs) with polycrystalline silicon contacted emitters wlere fabricated using monocrystalline silicon SEG base extrinsic contacts to examine the emitter/base junction. SSTs demonstrated maximum current gains of approximately 100, with nearly ideal junction behavior. Double self-aligned transistors (DSTs) were fabricated using both EL0 and polycrystalline silicon extrinsic base contacts to examine the full device. DSTs yielded maximum current gains of between 100 and 160 with nearly ideal emitter/base junction behavior. Base/collector junctions, however, showed degraded ideality and increased leakage currents over the SSTs. The problem is believed to be related to the increased fabrication complexity required for the DSTs over the SSTs. Reverse biased junction capacitances for SSTs and DSTs were correlated to unit area values and demonstrated good agreement over different device sizes. Resistor test structures indicate that polycrystalline silicon extrinsic base contacts will have increased contact resistance over monocrystalline silicaln base contacts by a factor of about 2. SUPREM-N and PISCES-IIB twedimensional computer si.mulations of the fabrication process and electrical characteristics respectively were compared against structural and electrical data to establish a base line for the simulation tools. Simulation tools were then used to predict the electrical behavior of the fully scaled-down version of the proposed device indicating a 45% decrease in base/collector capacitance over a comparable single elf-aligned bipolar transistor. A simulation was also performed to measure the transient response of a 50mV applied input step to the base in a common emitter amplifier configuration. With a 5kfl collector load, the proposed double self-aligned transistor exhibited a 20% faster collector current response time than a compara. ble single self-aligned device.

Four autotrophic compartments were recognised in Lake Kitiesh, King George Island (Southern Shetland) at the beginning of the summer in 1987: snow microalgae, ice bubble communities, phytoplankton in the water column and benthic communities of moss with epiphytes. Chlorophyll a concentration and pigment absorption spectra were obtained in these four compartments before and/or after the thawing of the ice cover. During the ice free period, carbon fixation and biomass was measured in the phytoplankton and in the benthic moss Campyliadelphus polygamus. From these measurements we conclude that the benthic moss is the most significant autotrophic component in this lake in terms of biomass, chlorophyll a content and primary productivity. The integral assimilation number (The ratio of carbon fixation per unit area to biomass per unit area) values were similar for both phytoplankton and the moss, ranging from 3.6 to 5.4 mg C (mg Chl a)−1h−1in phytoplankton and from 4.0 to 6.4 mgC (mg Chl a)−1h−1 in the benthic moss. This approach allows comparisons of carbon fixation efficiency of the chlorophyll a under a unit area between compartments in their different light environments.

We evaluated the effects of stand density on nitrogen (N2) fixation, net primary production (NPP) photosynthate partitioning, and canopy characteristics in 5—yr—old red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) plantations. Our study used acetylene reduction and dimension analysis techniques. Trees in low—density stands (initially spaced 2.74 x 2.74 m) had the highest mass, and surface—area components as well as N2 fixation. Mid—density stands (initially spaced 1.22 x 1.82 m) had the highest per—unit—area values for leaf mass, canopy volume, branch mass and surface area, root and stump mass, net branch production, aboveground net production, and N2 fixation. The highest density stands (initially spaced 0.61 x 1.22 m) had the highest values per unit area of the variables: wood volume, bole and total aboveground dry mass, and net bole production. Nodule dry mass per unit area was approximately equal in the mid— and high—density stands, averaging 146 kg/ha. A high correlation between N2 fixation and leaf mass per tree (r = 0.892) supports an earlier hypothesis (Gordon and Wheeler 1978) about field—grown alder. The lack correlation between leaf mass and N2 fixation per unit area (averaging 2.15 Mg/ha and 70 kg°ha—1°yr—1, respectively) suggests that high—density stands allocated less photosynthate to nodules of N2 fixation.

Summary In sartorius muscles of five Landrace-type pigs less than 24 hours old, the mean number of myofibrils per myofibre was calculated from the mean cross sectional area (CSA) of adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) activity per myofibre and the mean number of periodic acid-Schiff-negative sites per unit area. Values ranged from 40 to 81 with a mean of 59.4. In longissimus dorsi muscles of nine pigs less than 24 hours old, the degree of histochemical differentiation (ATPase) between myofibres located centrally and peripherally within fasciculi was approximately proportional to the mean minimum diameter of the myofibrillar CSA. The degree of histochemical differentiation and sometimes the diameters of the fibrils were increased by allowing samples to contract before being frozen in liquid nitrogen. In 13 pigs, the number of myofibres in a mid-length transverse section of the sartorius muscle increased between birth and six days after birth (P < 0.005). Zusammenfassung uber die Anzahl von Muskelzellen und die Myofibrillenentwicklung bei neugeborenen Ferkeln Bei 5 Ferkeln (Landrasse), welche weniger als 24 Stunden alt waren, wurde in den Mm. sartorii die durchschnittliche Zahl der Myofibrillen in den Muskelzellen berechnet, und zwar auf Grund der ATPase-Aktivitat pro Muskelzelle sowie der Anzahl der PAS-negativen Stellen pro Flacheneinheit. Die Ergebnisse schwankten zwischen 40–81 mit einem Mittelwert von 59,4. In den Mm. longissimi dorsi von 9 Ferkeln im Alter von weniger als 24 Stunden verhielt sich der Grad der histochemischen Differenzierung (ATPase) zwischen den zentralen und peripheren Zellen der Muskelfascikalen ungefahr proportional zum mittleren Kleinstdurchmesser des myofibrillaren Querschnittes. Der Grad der histochemischen Differenzierung und manchmal auch der Myofibrillendurchmesser erhohten sich, wenn sich die Praparate vor dem Gefrieren in flussigem Stickstoff kontrahieren konnten. Bei 13 Ferkeln erhohte sich die Zahl der Muskelzellen auf Querschnitten in der Mitte des M. sartorius in der Zeit zwischen der Geburt und 6 Tagen nach der Geburt (P < 0.005). Resume Nombres de cellules musculaires et developpement des fibrilles musculaires chez des porcelets nouveau-nes Le nombre moyen des myofibrilles dans les cellules musculaires des muscles couturiers (M. sartorius) a ete calcule chez 5 porcelets (race blanche) âges de moins de 24 heures. Le calcul a ete fait sur la base de l'activite ATP-ase par cellules musculaire et avec le nombre d'emplacements PAS-negatifs par unite de surface. Dans les muscles dorsaux (M. longissimus dorsi) de 9 porcelets âges de moins de 24 heures, le degre de differenciation histochimique (ATP-ase) se situa a peu pres proportionellement au plus petit diametre moyen de la coupe transversale myofibrillaire entre les cellules centrales et peripheriques des faisceaux musculaires. Le degre de differenciation histochimique et parfois le diametre terminal des fibrilles musculaires augmentaient lorsque les preparations se contractaient dans l'azote liquide avant la congelation. Le nombre des cellules (M. sartorius) augmenta chez 13 porcelets entre la naissance et l', âge de 6 jours (P < 0,005). Resumen Sobre la cantidad de celulas musculares y el desarrollo miofibrilar en lechones recien nacidos En 5 lechones (raza rural), menores que 24 horas de edad, se calculo en los ms. sartorios la cantidad media de miofibrillas por miofibra. Para ello se midio la actividad ATFasica por celula muscular y la cantidad de sitios PAS-negativos por unidad de superficie. Los valores oscilaban entre 40 y 81 con un valor medio de 59,4. En los ms. dorsales largos de 9 lechones menores que 24 horas se comporto el grado de diferenciacion histoquimica (ATFasa) entre las miofibrillas centrales y perifericas de las fascias musculares de forma aproximadamente proporcional al diametro minimo medio de la seccion miofibrilar transversal. El grado de diferenciacion histoquimica y algunas veces tambien los diametros miofibrilares aumentaban cuando se permitian que las preparaciones se contrajesen antes de ser congeladas en nitrogeno liquido. En 13 lechones aumento la cantidad de miofibrillas por secciones transversales en el centro del m. sartorio en el tiempo comprendido entre el nacimiento y 6 dias de edad (P < 0.005).